Clustering of Poor Dietary Habits among Adolescents Aged 12 to 15 Years in 52 Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Definitions
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | Survey Year | Region | Response Rate, % | N | Mean Age, Years | Boys, % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Afghanistan | 2014 | Eastern Mediterranean | 88.3 | 1319 | 14.1 | 53.6 |
Algeria | 2011 | Africa | 97.8 | 3408 | 13.6 | 45.8 |
Argentina | 2012 | America | 95.7 | 20,596 | 13.9 | 47.6 |
Bangladesh | 2014 | South-East Asia | 94.3 | 2597 | 14.0 | 63.8 |
Belize | 2011 | America | 97.4 | 1559 | 13.6 | 48.0 |
Benin | 2016 | Africa | 97.6 | 700 | 14.2 | 65.8 |
Bolivia | 2012 | America | 95.6 | 2682 | 14.0 | 50.1 |
Cambodia | 2013 | Western Pacific | 98.7 | 1789 | 14.1 | 48.5 |
Costa Rica | 2009 | America | 98.1 | 2223 | 14.0 | 49.8 |
Dominica | 2009 | America | 97.1 | 1272 | 13.6 | 49.9 |
Dominican Republic | 2016 | America | 94.7 | 903 | 14.3 | 48.2 |
Egypt | 2011 | Eastern Mediterranean | 94.4 | 2232 | 13.5 | 48.7 |
El Salvador | 2013 | America | 96.6 | 1560 | 14.0 | 50.6 |
Eswatini | 2013 | Africa | 97.0 | 1278 | 14.1 | 39.2 |
Fiji | 2016 | Western Pacific | 92.2 | 1417 | 14.4 | 48.9 |
Ghana | 2012 | Africa | 96.9 | 1298 | 13.9 | 48.8 |
Guatemala | 2015 | America | 94.6 | 3417 | 13.9 | 50.4 |
Guyana | 2010 | America | 95.8 | 1891 | 14.1 | 48.4 |
Honduras | 2012 | America | 95.9 | 1425 | 13.6 | 46.2 |
Indonesia | 2015 | South-East Asia | 97.5 | 8589 | 13.5 | 49.0 |
Iraq | 2012 | Eastern Mediterranean | 96.2 | 1475 | 13.9 | 54.7 |
Jamaica | 2017 | America | 95.7 | 1015 | 14.2 | 47.4 |
Kiribati | 2011 | Western Pacific | 97.2 | 1302 | 14.0 | 45.3 |
Lao People’s Democratic Republic | 2015 | Western Pacific | 98.6 | 1621 | 14.5 | 47.8 |
Lebanon | 2017 | Eastern Mediterranean | 97.2 | 3254 | 13.6 | 47.1 |
Liberia | 2017 | Africa | 87.2 | 472 | 14.0 | 50.8 |
Malaysia | 2012 | Western Pacific | 99.0 | 16,106 | 14.0 | 49.5 |
Maldives | 2014 | South-East Asia | 94.1 | 1676 | 14.4 | 48.8 |
Mauritania | 2010 | Africa | 93.2 | 1197 | 14.2 | 53.4 |
Mongolia | 2013 | Western Pacific | 97.1 | 3599 | 13.7 | 49.4 |
Morocco | 2016 | Eastern Mediterranean | 92.4 | 3674 | 13.6 | 50.8 |
Mozambique | 2015 | Africa | 88.8 | 593 | 14.1 | 51.1 |
Namibia | 2013 | Africa | 94.9 | 1837 | 14.1 | 42.4 |
Nepal | 2015 | South-East Asia | 95.3 | 4400 | 13.7 | 47.5 |
Pakistan | 2009 | Eastern Mediterranean | 97.2 | 4860 | 14.1 | 60.7 |
Paraguay | 2017 | America | 95.4 | 1882 | 13.9 | 47.4 |
Peru | 2010 | America | 99.1 | 2338 | 14.1 | 49.8 |
Philippines | 2015 | Western Pacific | 98.8 | 6088 | 13.9 | 48.1 |
Samoa | 2011 | Western Pacific | 90.0 | 1991 | 14.0 | 47.1 |
Solomon Islands | 2011 | Western Pacific | 91.7 | 848 | 14.1 | 51.9 |
Sri Lanka | 2016 | South-East Asia | 97.3 | 2194 | 13.9 | 49.1 |
Sudan | 2012 | Eastern Mediterranean | 93.6 | 1312 | 14.2 | 51.9 |
Suriname | 2016 | America | 97.5 | 1416 | 13.8 | 46.0 |
Syrian Arab Republic | 2010 | Eastern Mediterranean | 97.1 | 2843 | 13.6 | 50.7 |
Thailand | 2015 | South-East Asia | 95.7 | 3956 | 13.7 | 49.3 |
Timor-Leste | 2015 | South-East Asia | 90.1 | 1470 | 14.1 | 46.0 |
Tonga | 2017 | Western Pacific | 97.0 | 2004 | 13.6 | 51.2 |
Tuvalu | 2013 | Western Pacific | 93.5 | 635 | 13.3 | 48.2 |
Tanzania | 2014 | Africa | 95.7 | 2502 | 13.6 | 47.0 |
Vanuatu | 2016 | Western Pacific | 95.0 | 1224 | 14.1 | 47.3 |
Vietnam | 2013 | Western Pacific | 97.4 | 1697 | 14.5 | 46.8 |
Yemen | 2014 | Eastern Mediterranean | 89.2 | 1385 | 13.8 | 56.5 |
Country | Carbonated Soft Drink Consumption, % (95% CI) | Fast Food Consumption, % (95% CI) | Low Fruit and Vegetable Intake, % (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|
Afghanistan | 40.7 (36.0, 45.4) | 63.4 (57.1, 69.6) | 85.2 (80.6, 89.9) |
Algeria | 77.6 (75.2, 80.1) | 51.7 (48.3, 55.0) | 65.5 (62.6, 68.5) |
Argentina | 65.7 (63.5, 68.0) | 31.3 (29.2, 33.3) | 82.5 (81.0, 83.9) |
Bangladesh | 47.8 (43.8, 51.9) | 53.5 (48.6, 58.3) | 83.6 (79.7, 87.5) |
Belize | 63.8 (60.4, 67.1) | 65.7 (60.8, 70.6) | 70.5 (67.8, 73.3) |
Benin | 43.3 (37.3, 49.3) | 46.8 (40.3, 53.2) | 69.0 (63.5, 74.5) |
Bolivia | 63.3 (60.8, 65.7) | 57.0 (54.5, 59.6) | 68.4 (65.7, 71.1) |
Cambodia | 45.6 (40.6, 50.6) | 25.4 (22.3, 28.6) | 89.9 (88.3, 91.4) |
Costa Rica | 52.7 (49.0, 56.4) | 54.4 (48.8, 60.1) | 80.7 (78.0, 83.4) |
Dominica | 56.1 (52.7, 59.5) | 46.4 (43.0, 49.8) | 73.5 (70.1, 76.8) |
Dominican Republic | 74.9 (73.3, 76.6) | 46.0 (40.9, 51.2) | 81.1 (77.0, 85.2) |
Egypt | 55.2 (48.8, 61.6) | 49.0 (42.5, 55.5) | 75.2 (69.6, 80.8) |
El Salvador | 66.2 (62.4, 70.1) | 57.0 (53.4, 60.5) | 79.1 (76.5, 81.8) |
Eswatini | 45.7 (42.3, 49.1) | 41.1 (37.0, 45.2) | 79.6 (75.8, 83.4) |
Fiji | 63.3 (59.1, 67.5) | 63.8 (58.4, 69.2) | 62.7 (57.1, 68.4) |
Ghana | 53.8 (46.6, 61.0) | 69.0 (60.8, 77.3) | 65.1 (60.8, 69.3) |
Guatemala | 61.2 (55.6, 66.7) | 57.2 (49.1, 65.4) | 70.8 (68.7, 72.9) |
Guyana | 71.0 (66.5, 75.4) | 55.5 (52.6, 58.5) | 68.4 (63.6, 73.2) |
Honduras | 73.7 (70.2, 77.2) | 47.5 (43.8, 51.2) | 73.5 (69.7, 77.4) |
Indonesia | 28.9 (26.5, 31.4) | 54.7 (52.1, 57.2) | 75.3 (73.3, 77.3) |
Iraq | 53.9 (50.6, 57.2) | 55.5 (50.8, 60.1) | 73.4 (69.6, 77.1) |
Jamaica | 70.2 (65.3, 75.1) | 58.6 (55.9, 61.3) | 81.3 (77.1, 85.6) |
Kiribati | 22.4 (19.5, 25.4) | 43.7 (39.4, 48.0) | 85.4 (83.4, 87.4) |
Lao People’s Democratic Republic | 58.0 (50.2, 65.8) | 44.5 (38.9, 50.1) | 81.9 (79.3, 84.6) |
Lebanon | 48.8 (45.2, 52.4) | 77.0 (75.0, 79.0) | 75.6 (73.1, 78.2) |
Liberia | 47.3 (40.8, 53.8) | 41.5 (34.7, 48.4) | 71.3 (66.8, 75.8) |
Malaysia | 31.1 (29.4, 32.8) | 48.3 (46.6, 49.9) | 69.9 (68.6, 71.2) |
Maldives | 32.5 (29.4, 35.6) | 34.6 (30.5, 38.6) | 90.2 (88.5, 91.8) |
Mauritania | 52.2 (48.5, 55.8) | 62.7 (56.7, 68.7) | 71.4 (66.9, 75.8) |
Mongolia | 33.0 (30.4, 35.6) | 55.2 (49.7, 60.7) | 78.5 (76.8, 80.1) |
Morocco | 33.4 (31.4, 35.4) | 61.8 (57.9, 65.7) | 64.1 (60.3, 67.9) |
Mozambique | 57.7 (45.8, 69.7) | 64.5 (53.5, 75.5) | 75.4 (70.2, 80.6) |
Namibia | 51.5 (47.1, 55.9) | 53.8 (47.9, 59.6) | 71.4 (66.9, 75.9) |
Nepal | 33.4 (28.8, 38.0) | 75.2 (71.2, 79.2) | 90.7 (88.3, 93.1) |
Pakistan | 36.5 (29.7, 43.3) | 20.9 (17.5, 24.3) | 90.0 (87.9, 92.1) |
Paraguay | 61.3 (57.5, 65.0) | 54.5 (50.3, 58.6) | 73.1 (71.1, 75.2) |
Peru | 53.2 (49.5, 57.0) | 50.1 (46.0, 54.1) | 90.2 (87.4, 92.9) |
Philippines | 37.7 (34.7, 40.7) | 51.9 (46.0, 57.8) | 74.5 (72.4, 76.6) |
Samoa | 53.5 (50.3, 56.6) | 78.8 (75.3, 82.3) | 52.1 (48.2, 56.0) |
Solomon Islands | 43.8 (39.7, 47.9) | 64.6 (54.3, 75.0) | 55.2 (50.4, 60.0) |
Sri Lanka | 26.7 (23.0, 30.5) | 42.7 (36.9, 48.5) | 75.8 (72.7, 79.0) |
Sudan | 38.7 (34.2, 43.2) | 41.2 (35.1, 47.3) | 77.1 (73.7, 80.5) |
Suriname | 79.3 (76.5, 82.1) | 63.9 (60.0, 67.8) | 71.0 (68.2, 73.7) |
Syrian Arab Republic | 30.9 (27.7, 34.2) | 42.7 (37.3, 48.1) | 84.5 (82.7, 86.4) |
Thailand | 57.0 (51.5, 62.6) | 80.0 (78.0, 81.9) | 70.0 (66.7, 73.2) |
Timor-Leste | 44.2 (39.8, 48.7) | 66.6 (62.6, 70.6) | 83.5 (79.6, 87.4) |
Tonga | 60.7 (58.2, 63.1) | 69.7 (67.5, 71.9) | 54.8 (52.4, 57.2) |
Tuvalu | 54.0 (50.0, 57.9) | 44.4 (40.6, 48.3) | 64.9 (61.1, 68.5) |
Tanzania | 47.5 (42.5, 52.4) | 35.3 (30.2, 40.5) | 65.0 (60.3, 69.6) |
Vanuatu | 41.2 (37.3, 45.1) | 57.3 (52.4, 62.1) | 45.9 (41.8, 49.9) |
Vietnam | 34.9 (28.5, 41.3) | 29.7 (25.8, 33.6) | 77.1 (73.9, 80.2) |
Yemen | 37.0 (29.2, 44.9) | 34.2 (25.3, 43.1) | 79.1 (74.1, 84.2) |
Pooled estimate | 50.3 (45.6, 55.0) | 52.7 (48.4, 57.0) | 74.4 (71.8, 77.0) |
I2 (%) | 99.1 | 99.1 | 98.1 |
Country | Number of Unhealthy Eating Habits, % (95% CI) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | |
Afghanistan | 2.2 (0.7, 3.7) | 29.2 (25.1, 33.3) | 45.8 (41.1, 50.4) | 22.9 (19.4, 26.3) |
Algeria | 2.7 (1.8, 3.5) | 25.0 (23.0, 26.9) | 47.2 (45.1, 49.2) | 25.2 (22.4, 27.9) |
Argentina | 3.5 (2.9, 4.0) | 31.8 (30.2, 33.3) | 46.6 (45.5, 47.7) | 18.2 (16.6, 19.7) |
Bangladesh | 1.4 (0.4, 2.5) | 34.4 (29.8, 39.0) | 41.9 (38.1, 45.6) | 22.3 (19.0, 25.5) |
Belize | 4.0 (3.0, 5.0) | 22.0 (18.5, 25.5) | 44.0 (40.2, 47.8) | 30.0 (26.8, 33.2) |
Benin | 5.2 (3.0, 7.4) | 43.5 (38.9, 48.1) | 38.3 (33.9, 42.6) | 13.0 (10.5, 15.5) |
Bolivia | 5.2 (4.3, 6.1) | 26.8 (25.4, 28.2) | 42.2 (40.6, 43.7) | 25.9 (23.9, 27.8) |
Cambodia | 2.0 (1.4, 2.6) | 47.8 (43.2, 52.4) | 37.5 (34.9, 40.1) | 12.7 (10.1, 15.4) |
Costa Rica | 3.8 (3.0, 4.6) | 30.0 (26.4, 33.6) | 40.7 (38.1, 43.2) | 25.5 (22.4, 28.7) |
Dominica | 5.0 (3.7, 6.2) | 33.8 (31.0, 36.5) | 41.6 (38.6, 44.6) | 19.7 (17.2, 22.1) |
Dominican Republic | 2.3 (1.4, 3.3) | 21.7 (18.6, 24.8) | 47.6 (44.1, 51.1) | 28.4 (24.4, 32.4) |
Egypt | 3.9 (2.1, 5.6) | 32.3 (26.9, 37.7) | 44.4 (39.4, 49.4) | 19.4 (15.0, 23.9) |
El Salvador | 3.6 (2.6, 4.7) | 23.1 (19.4, 26.7) | 40.5 (38.4, 42.6) | 32.7 (29.1, 36.3) |
Eswatini | 4.7 (3.1, 6.3) | 40.5 (36.7, 44.3) | 38.5 (35.7, 41.2) | 16.3 (13.1, 19.6) |
Fiji | 4.7 (3.4, 5.9) | 25.9 (22.5, 29.4) | 44.3 (41.1, 47.4) | 25.1 (22.6, 27.6) |
Ghana | 3.3 (1.6, 5.0) | 27.5 (21.1, 33.9) | 47.2 (43.5, 51.0) | 22.0 (16.3, 27.7) |
Guatemala | 5.3 (4.0, 6.7) | 25.7 (22.6, 28.9) | 43.3 (40.0, 46.6) | 25.6 (21.2, 30.1) |
Guyana | 3.8 (2.7, 4.9) | 25.0 (22.3, 27.7) | 43.6 (40.7, 46.5) | 27.6 (24.1, 31.1) |
Honduras | 2.5 (1.7, 3.3) | 25.8 (22.3, 29.3) | 46.2 (43.7, 48.6) | 25.5 (21.9, 29.1) |
Indonesia | 6.3 (5.4, 7.1) | 40.6 (38.4, 42.7) | 41.1 (39.7, 42.6) | 12.0 (10.6, 13.4) |
Iraq | 4.1 (2.8, 5.3) | 31.5 (27.7, 35.2) | 42.2 (39.2, 45.1) | 22.3 (19.1, 25.5) |
Jamaica | 1.7 (0.8, 2.6) | 20.1 (16.4, 23.8) | 44.5 (40.7, 48.3) | 33.7 (29.9, 37.5) |
Kiribati | 5.0 (3.7, 6.3) | 48.6 (45.6, 51.6) | 36.3 (33.0, 39.6) | 10.1 (7.5, 12.8) |
Lao People’s Democratic Republic | 3.2 (1.9, 4.4) | 32.0 (26.3, 37.8) | 42.0 (39.1, 45.0) | 22.8 (17.7, 27.8) |
Lebanon | 3.2 (2.5, 3.9) | 21.3 (19.3, 23.3) | 46.6 (44.6, 48.6) | 29.0 (26.6, 31.4) |
Liberia | 5.2 (3.2, 7.3) | 42.1 (36.8, 47.3) | 40.0 (36.1, 43.8) | 12.7 (9.5, 15.9) |
Malaysia | 10.0 (9.2, 10.8) | 42.4 (41.0, 43.8) | 36.0 (34.9, 37.2) | 11.6 (10.8, 12.4) |
Maldives | 3.4 (2.2, 4.6) | 48.5 (44.7, 52.3) | 35.6 (32.4, 38.8) | 12.5 (10.3, 14.7) |
Mauritania | 3.6 (2.0, 5.2) | 29.2 (24.8, 33.6) | 44.6 (40.7, 48.4) | 22.6 (18.0, 27.2) |
Mongolia | 5.4 (4.5, 6.4) | 37.4 (33.5, 41.4) | 42.1 (39.2, 45.1) | 15.0 (12.7, 17.2) |
Morocco | 9.1 (8.0, 10.2) | 35.0 (32.6, 37.4) | 43.3 (41.3, 45.4) | 12.5 (10.5, 14.5) |
Mozambique | 3.9 (2.4, 5.4) | 24.1 (17.9, 30.3) | 42.6 (34.4, 50.8) | 29.4 (19.7, 39.2) |
Namibia | 3.9 (2.3, 5.5) | 33.6 (30.1, 37.1) | 44.4 (41.4, 47.5) | 18.1 (15.5, 20.6) |
Nepal | 1.0 (0.5, 1.5) | 21.9 (17.9, 25.9) | 53.8 (50.0, 57.5) | 23.3 (19.8, 26.8) |
Pakistan | 2.8 (2.1, 3.5) | 56.2 (50.5, 61.9) | 31.8 (27.6, 36.0) | 9.2 (6.8, 11.6) |
Paraguay | 5.2 (4.0, 6.4) | 26.4 (22.7, 30.1) | 42.7 (40.2, 45.1) | 25.7 (22.5, 28.9) |
Peru | 1.5 (0.9, 2.1) | 29.9 (26.9, 32.9) | 42.1 (39.9, 44.3) | 26.5 (23.8, 29.1) |
Philippines | 7.4 (6.0, 8.7) | 36.5 (32.5, 40.4) | 40.9 (37.8, 44.0) | 15.3 (12.9, 17.7) |
Samoa | 4.5 (3.3, 5.7) | 28.0 (25.4, 30.5) | 46.1 (41.9, 50.4) | 21.4 (18.6, 24.2) |
Solomon Islands | 9.1 (5.5, 12.7) | 32.0 (28.0, 36.1) | 45.0 (39.6, 50.3) | 13.9 (9.9, 17.9) |
Sri Lanka | 9.6 (7.1, 12.1) | 46.0 (41.5, 50.5) | 33.8 (29.2, 38.4) | 10.5 (8.9, 12.2) |
Sudan | 5.7 (4.0, 7.5) | 45.3 (40.9, 49.7) | 35.1 (31.6, 38.6) | 13.8 (10.9, 16.8) |
Suriname | 2.6 (1.8, 3.3) | 17.1 (14.8, 19.4) | 43.9 (40.8, 46.9) | 36.4 (33.1, 39.8) |
Syrian Arab Republic | 4.5 (3.4, 5.7) | 45.4 (41.6, 49.2) | 37.5 (33.6, 41.3) | 12.6 (10.7, 14.5) |
Thailand | 2.7 (1.9, 3.5) | 18.4 (17.0, 19.8) | 48.0 (45.5, 50.6) | 30.8 (27.5, 34.2) |
Timor-Leste | 3.0 (1.9, 4.1) | 25.7 (22.8, 28.6) | 45.3 (43.6, 46.9) | 26.0 (22.4, 29.7) |
Tonga | 6.9 (5.6, 8.2) | 24.6 (22.5, 26.7) | 45.1 (42.8, 47.3) | 23.5 (21.6, 25.4) |
Tuvalu | 5.5 (4.0, 7.6) | 39.7 (36.0, 43.6) | 40.8 (37.0, 44.7) | 14.0 (11.5, 16.9) |
Tanzania | 9.2 (7.3, 11.1) | 44.1 (40.6, 47.6) | 36.5 (33.0, 40.0) | 10.2 (8.2, 12.3) |
Vanuatu | 12.5 (10.0, 14.9) | 40.8 (37.2, 44.4) | 36.6 (33.1, 40.1) | 10.1 (7.6, 12.6) |
Vietnam | 7.6 (5.0, 10.3) | 51.8 (47.8, 55.7) | 32.0 (27.6, 36.4) | 8.6 (6.3, 11.0) |
Yemen | 5.9 (3.9, 7.8) | 49.9 (42.4, 57.5) | 32.2 (27.3, 37.1) | 12.0 (7.4, 16.6) |
Pooled estimate | 4.6 (4.0, 5.2) | 33.3 (30.8, 35.9) | 41.8 (40.7, 43.0) | 20.0 (18.1, 22.0) |
I2 (%) | 94.5 | 97.7 | 90.8 | 97.1 |
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Fan, H.; Zhang, X. Clustering of Poor Dietary Habits among Adolescents Aged 12 to 15 Years in 52 Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186806
Fan H, Zhang X. Clustering of Poor Dietary Habits among Adolescents Aged 12 to 15 Years in 52 Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(18):6806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186806
Chicago/Turabian StyleFan, Hui, and Xingyu Zhang. 2020. "Clustering of Poor Dietary Habits among Adolescents Aged 12 to 15 Years in 52 Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 18: 6806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186806