Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis: The Perspective from the Gulf Countries
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Search Strategy
2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
3. Results and Discussion
Burden of Cryptosporidium in the GCC Countries
4. Possible Risk Factors in the GCC Countries Associated with the Prevalence of Cryptosporidiosis
4.1. Cryptosporidium Contaminating Water Resources in the GCC Countries
4.2. Animals and Birds Invading Sports Events in the GCC Countries
4.3. Expatriate Labourers in the GCC Countries
4.4. Food as a Vehicle of Foodborne Cryptosporidiosis in the GCC Countries
4.5. Airborne Transmission of Cryptosporidium under Arid Climate Conditions
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | Serial No. of Reports | City | Type of Residents | Patients Classification | Most Affected Age | Symptoms | Method of Detection | Prevalence No. of Infected/No. of Total (%) | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bahrain | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |||
Kuwait | 1 | Safat | Inhabitants | Children | 4–8 Y | Diarrhoea | MZN, PCR-RFLP | 87/2548 | * (3.4%) | [49] |
2 | Farwanyia | Inhabitants | Children | >2 Y | Diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting | MSMB, DFA | 51/3549 | (10%) | [39] | |
3 | Jabryia | NM | Hospitalized patients | NM | Diarrhoea | xTAG GPPA | 1/109 | (0.9%) | [61] | |
4 | Safat | Inhabitants | Children | 2–3 Y | GIT symptoms mainly diarrhoea | MZN, PCR-RFLP | 58/62 | (94%) | [50] | |
5 | Farwanyia | NM | ICCT children | <3 Y | Diarrhoea, dehydration, fever, abdominal pain | NM | 35/2205 | (1.6%) | [62] | |
Oman | 1 | Muscat | Expatriates | Food handlers | NM | Asymptomatic | KKT, TS, APFM | 2/100 | (0.2%) | [63] |
2 | Muscat | Inhabitants and expatriates | Children | <2 Y | Diarrhoea, fever, vomiting | MZN, APFM | 16/807 | (1.9%) | [64] | |
Qatar | 1 | Doha | Inhabitants and expatriates | Hospitalized paediatrics | <2.5 Y | Chronic diarrhoea | q-PCR | 90/580 | (15.5%) | [46] |
2 | Doha | Expatriates | Immigrants | 23–29 Y | Asymptomatic | q-PCR | 38/839 | (4.5%) | [45] | |
SA | 1 | Dammam and Alkhobar | Inhabitants | Children and adults | 2 Y | Diarrhoea | MZN, APFM | 2/321 | (0.6%) | [65] |
2 | Al-Taif | Inhabitants | Children and adults | <5 Y | Diarrhoea | MZN, LFIT, Con-PCR | 21/180 | (11.6%) | [66] | |
3 | Gizan and Madinna | NM | Children | <2 Y | Diarrhoea and asymptomatic | MZN, MSMB, EIA, PCR-RFLP, sequencing | 103/1641 | (6.3%) | [67] | |
4 | Al-Taif | NM | Children and adults | <5 Y | Acute diarrhoea | xTAG GPPA | 14/163 | (8.5%) | [68] | |
5 | Dhahran | NM | Various ages | NM | Abdominal symptoms mainly diarrhoea | MZN, DFA | 66/100 | (66%) | [69] | |
6 | Mekkah | Inhabitants | Children < 14 y | <5 Y | Diarrhoea | MZN, ICT, PCR-RFLP | 23/1380 | (1.7%) | [70] | |
7 | Jeddah | Inhabitants | Children | <5 Y | Asymptomatic and diarrhoea | MZN | 29/253 | (11.5%) | [71] | |
8 | Riyadh | NM | HIV patients | 2–10 Y | Diarrhoea and non-diarrhoea | MZN | 11/136 | (8.1%) | [72] | |
9 | Makkah | NM | People attending clinics around the Holy Masjid | <30 Y | Enteritis | MZN | 5/183 | (2.7%) | [60] | |
10 | Riyadh | NM | Children <10 y | NM | Diarrhoea | MSMB | 2/174 | (1.1%) | [73] | |
11 | Hail | NM | School children | NM | Diarrhoea and non-diarrhoea | MZN | 74/200 | (37%) | [74] | |
12 | Riyadh | Inhabitants | ICP | 16–40 Y | Chronic diarrhoea Malnutrition | MZN, ELISA | 285/408 | (69.9%) | [75] | |
13 | Riyadh | Inhabitants with few expatriates | In-and out-patients | 0–10 Y | NM | MZN | 6/5987 | (0.1%) | [76] | |
14 | Al-Taif | NM | Children | <10 Y | NM | MZN, AP-PCR, Sequencing | 11/100 | (11%) | [77] | |
15 | Jeddah | NM | Children | NM | NM | MZN, APFM, ELISA, Nested PCR, PCR-RFLP | 35/500 | (7%) | [78] | |
UAE | 16 | Hail | Inhabitants and expatriates | Saudi and non-Saudi patients | NM | Asymptomatic | MZN | 25/130 | 19.2% | [79] |
1 | Sharjah | Expatriates | Adults | ≤25 Y | Asymptomatic | q-PCR | 26/134 | (19.4%) | [48] | |
2 | Al-Ain | Expatriates | Adults | 30–39 | Asymptomatic | MZN, Con-PCR | 16/86 | (18.6%) | [47] | |
3 | Al-Ain | NM | ICP and ICTT Children | <5 | Diarrhoea Fever Vomiting ALA | MZN | 7/140 | (5%) | [80] |
Country/City | Target Population | Methods Used | Gene Target | Reported Genotypes | No. of Cases within the Species (%) | Subtypes Allele Family | No. of Cases within Each Allele | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kuwait/Safat | Children with diarrhoea | PCR-RFLP |
18S rRNA Gp60 | C. parvum | 61/83 (73.5%) | C. parvum | [49] | |
IIa | 29 | |||||||
C. hominis | 22/83 (26.5%) | IId | 20 | |||||
IIc | 12 | |||||||
C. hominis | ||||||||
Mixed “C. parvum and C. hominis” | 4/83 (4.8%) | Id | 12 | |||||
Ia | 8 | |||||||
Ie | 2 | |||||||
Mixed infection | NI | |||||||
Kuwait/Safat | Symptomatic children | PCR-RFLP Sequencing | 18S rRNA Gp60 | C. parvum | 58/62 (93.5%) | C. parvum | [50] | |
IId | 29 | |||||||
IIa | 28 | |||||||
C. hominis | 3/62 (4.8%) | IIc | 1 | |||||
Mixed “C. parvum and C. hominis” | 1/62 (1.6%) | IIf | 1 | |||||
C. hominis | ||||||||
Ib | 2 | |||||||
Id | 1 | |||||||
Ie | 1 | |||||||
Qatar/Doha | Hospitalized paediatrics with diarrhoea | qPCR Sequencing | 18S rRNA Gp60 | C. parvum | 83/90 (92.2%) | C. parvum1 | [46] | |
C. hominis | 4/90 (4.4%) | IId | 83 | |||||
C. meleagridis | 1/90 (1.11) | C. hominis | ||||||
Mixed “C. parvum and C. hominis” | 1/90 (1.11%) | Ib | 4 | |||||
Mixed “C. parvum and C. meleagridis” | 1/90 (1.11%) | |||||||
Qatar/Doha | Asymptomatic Immigrants | qPCR Sequencing | 18S rRNA Gp60 | C. parvum | 30/38 (80%) | C. parvum | [45] | |
C. hominis | 1/38 (2.6%) | IId | 30 | |||||
Mixed “C. parvum and C. hominis” | 4/38 (10.5%) | C. hominis | ||||||
Mixed “C. parvum and C. meleagridis” | 3/38 (7.9%) | Ie | 1 | |||||
SA/Makkah | Children with diarrhoea | PCR-RFLP | 18S rRNA | C. hominis | (81.1%) | NI | - | [70] |
C. parvum | (16.7%) | NI | - | |||||
SA/Gizan and Maddina | Children with diarrhoea and asymptomatic children | PCR-RFLP Sequencing |
18S rRNA Gp60 HSP70 | C. parvum | 79/101 (78.2%) | C. parvum | NM | [67] |
IId | ||||||||
C. hominis | 13/101 (12.9%) | IIa | ||||||
IIc | ||||||||
Mixed “C. parvum and C. hominis” | 8/101 (7.92%) | C. hominis | NM | |||||
Ib | ||||||||
Ie | ||||||||
SA/Al-Taif | Children form different hospitals and laboratories |
AP-PCR Sequencing | 18S rRNA | C. parvum | 11/100 (11%) | NI | NI | [77] |
SA/Jeddah | Asymptomatic Children | Nested PCR and PCR-RFLP |
18S rRNA COWP Gp60 | C. parvum | 15/35 (42.9%) | NI | NI | [78] |
C. hominis | 13/35 (37%) | |||||||
C. meleagridis | 1/35 (2.9%) | |||||||
C. muris | 1/35 (2.9%) |
Country/City | Type of Contaminated Water | Method Used | No. of Contaminated/No. of Total | Genotyping/Subtyping | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kuwait/Safat | Overhead water tanks | IFT PCR-RFLP of 18S rRNA | 1/5 | 2C. parvum subtype IIa | [49] |
SA/Al-Taif | Underground water (UW) from wells | Nested PCR | UW 7/96 | NP | [52] |
Desalinated water (DW) from tanks in private houses | DW 8/72 | ||||
Bottled water (BW) | BW 0/60 | ||||
1 SA/Tabuk | Bottled water | Filtration MZN ELISA | 6/36 | NP | [111] |
1 SA/Mekka and Jeddah | Tap water | Double centrifugation MZN | Schools 13/44 | NP | [112] |
Bottled water | Houses 33/122 | ||||
Ablution water | Mosques 31/79 | ||||
UAE/Dubai | School swimming pool | IFT | 5/5 | NP | [113] |
UAE/Dubai | Irrigation water (IW) of public parks | IFT | IW 17/18 | NP | [114] |
Chlorinated water (CW) samples from the sewage treatment plant | CW 5/5 |
Country/City | Type of Animal | No. of Infected/No. of Total | Method Used | Genotyping of Cryptospori-Dium | Subtyping of Cryptosporidium | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kuwait/different areas | Sheep Goats | 38/334 16/222 | MZN EIA PCR-RFLP Sequencing | C. parvum | IIdA20G1 | [95] |
C. ubiquitum | IIaA15G2R1 | |||||
C. xiaoi | XIIa | |||||
Kuwait/Kabd, Salmi, Abdelli and Wafra areas | Calves Goat kids Lambs | 15/40 12/57 16/128 | MZN ICT | NP | NP | [135] |
Kuwait/Sulaibiya | Newborn calves | 31/80 | MZN | NP | NP | [136] |
1 Oman/Muscat | Goats | 238/238 | IFT MZN H&E histopathology TEM SEM | C. parvum | NP | [137] |
SA/Riyadh | Goats | 24/72 | MZN ELISA | NP | NP | [100] |
Sheep | 15/58 | |||||
Camels | 20/49 | |||||
2 SA/Riyadh | Camels | 5/33 | NM | NP | NP | [138] |
2 SA/Riyadh | Arabian Oryx | NM | NM | NP | NP | [139] |
UAE/Dubai | Falcons | 2/2 | MZN PCR Sequencing | C. parvum | NP | [140] |
1 UAE/Dubai | Stone curlew | 19/29 | MZN ICT H&E histopathology PCR-RFLP | C. parvum in two samples tested | NP | [141] |
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Ahmed, S.A.; Karanis, P. Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis: The Perspective from the Gulf Countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6824. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186824
Ahmed SA, Karanis P. Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis: The Perspective from the Gulf Countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(18):6824. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186824
Chicago/Turabian StyleAhmed, Shahira A., and Panagiotis Karanis. 2020. "Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis: The Perspective from the Gulf Countries" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 18: 6824. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186824