Exploring the Impacts of Living in a “Green” City on Individual BMI: A Study of Lingang New Town in Shanghai, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Case Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Measures
- (1)
- (2)
- Variables of (green) lifestyle: both behaviors and perceptions related to the exposure of green space in LNT were measured in this research to reflect people’s green lifestyles. The behavior aspect was measured by querying residents’ frequency of using green space before moving to LNT and their current use of green space in LNT, with four-scale answers provided (1 = “less than once a week”, 2 = “once or twice a week”, 3 = “three to six times a week”, 4 = “everyday”). We inspected residents’ perceptions of green space in LNT in seven dimensions that were acknowledged as green space’s key functions in the sustainable urban planning code: exercising, safety, accessibility, social interaction, commerce, public events, and environment quality. Specifically, residents were asked four sets of questions, including to what extent the specific dimension of green space is important to them, and to what extent they are satisfied with every dimensional function of green space of a specific kind. Three kinds of green space were inspected, respectively, namely community gardens (in community), small parks (nearby community), and large parks, covering most of the green infrastructure types in LNT. Answers on a Likert scale were provided for these 28 questions, with the score ranging from 1 (indicating extremely unimportant/unsatisfied) to 7 (indicating extremely important/satisfied).
- (3)
- Housing mode variable: residents’ housing tenure choice in LNT was measured to constitute the housing mode variable. Overall, there were three housing modes identified, namely private housing, rental housing and public housing. The private housing mode referred to residents who owned a local private property. The rental housing mode referred to tenants who rented from the housing market. Public housing mode represented tenants who obtained subsidized housing provided by the local government. This housing mode was mostly provided to employees of state-owned enterprises in LNT as temporary accommodation.
- (4)
- Covariates: respondents’ individual profiles were considered as confounding variables. In terms of socio-demographic status, we surveyed the heads of household or their spouses for age, gender, marital status, hukou status, educational level and the household monthly income level. It is important to note that hukou status is one of the most crucial indicators of individual socio-economic capabilities. Hukou is a household registration system in China that defines one’s right to different socio-economic benefits. For example, the hukou origin determines the access to local socio-economic welfare support, such as education allowances and medical care. Furthermore, only non-agricultural hukou holders can have urban welfare support, which is of a much higher standard than rural forms. In this research, we defined a respondent as a migrant if his/her hukou origin was outside Shanghai. The type of hukou was categorized into agricultural and non-agricultural based on the type of hukou registration. A respondent with a college or above degree was regarded as having a high educational level. Household monthly income in Chinese currency “RMB” was classified into six levels (1 = “less than 1000“, 2 = “1000–4999”, 3 = “5000–10,000”, 4 = “10,001–20,000”, 5 = “20,001–30,000”, 6 = “more than 30,000”). As for factors of work and life, we measured respondents’ job type, commuting time, amount of spare time and length of time spent living in LNT. Specifically, working for the public sector was considered as a stable job type in Chinese cities. One’s amount of spare time was likely to be affected by his/her employment status and commuting time. The residence length in LNT helped to verify respondents as new inhabitants of LNT.
- (5)
- Control variable: a few variables relating to the lived experience in LNT were considered as control variables for analyzing BMI. First, respondents were asked to report their subjective perception of individual health, ranging from “completely unhealthy”, “relatively unhealthy”, “relatively healthy”, to “completely healthy”. The walking time from home to the nearest green space was surveyed, with four answers provided (1 = “less than 10 min”, 2 = “11–20 min”, 3 = “21–30 min”, 4 = “more than 30 min”).
2.3. Model Construction
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
3.2. Analysis on Behaviors and Perceptions of Green Space Exposure
3.3. Structural Equation Model Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Description | Range | Housing Tenure Choice | F Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Private (n = 229) | Rental (n = 118) | Public (n = 56) | ||||
Age | Mean (S.D.) | 18–80 | 36.4 (9.0) | 34.3 (11.0) | 32.8 (10.0) | 3.9 * |
Gender | Female (%) | 57.6 | 42.4 | 44.6 | ||
Marital status | Married (%) | 84.7 | 65.3 | 55.4 | ||
Hukou origin | Non-Shanghai (%) | 32.3 | 77.1 | 64.3 | ||
Hukou type | Non-agriculture (%) | 86.0 | 56.8 | 69.6 | ||
Educational degree | College or above (%) | 84.7 | 71.2 | 89.3 | ||
Job type | Public sector (%) | 53.3 | 28.0 | 57.1 | ||
Other sector (%) | 46.7 | 72.0 | 42.9 | |||
Employment status | Retired (%) | 3.1 | 1.7 | 3.6 | ||
Part-time (%) | 8.7 | 17.0 | 8.9 | |||
Full-time (%) | 88.2 | 81.3 | 87.5 | |||
Commuting minutes | Mean(S.D.) | 2–120 | 26.1 (19.8) | 20.8 (16.6) | 18.7 (10.3) | 5.9 ** |
Household monthly income level | Mean (S.D.) | 1–6 | 4.1 (1.1) | 3.7 (1.2) | 4.1 (0.9) | 4.1 * |
Year living in LNT | Mean (S.D.) | 0–18 | 4.2 (3.2) | 2.2 (1.6) | 1.6 (1.1) | 35.8 *** |
Frequency of using green space before | Mean (S.D.) | 1–4 | 1.6 (0.9) | 1.7 (0.9) | 1.8 (0.9) | 1.3 |
Frequency of using green space now | Mean (S.D.) | 1–4 | 1.9 (0.9) | 1.9 (0.9) | 2.0 (1.0) | 0.22 |
Distance to nearest green space | Mean (S.D.) | 1–4 | 1.7 (0.9) | 1.8 (1.0) | 2.1 (1.1) | 4.6* |
Self-reported health level | Mean (S.D.) | 1–4 | 2.9 (0.7) | 3.1 (0.8) | 3.0 (0.9) | 1.6 |
BMI | Mean (S.D.) | 15.6–32.9 | 22.9 (2.9) | 22.5 (2.8) | 21.7 (2.4) | 4.4* |
Frequency of Using Green Space | Before Moving to LNT (%) | After Moved to LNT (%) | Relative Change (%) 1 |
---|---|---|---|
Everyday | 6.2 | 7.1 | +14.5 |
3–6 times per week | 9.5 | 13.9 | +46.3 |
1–2 times per week | 27.0 | 40.0 | +48.1 |
Once in a few weeks | 57.3 | 39.0 | −31.9 |
Component | Variance | Loaded Items (>0.40) | Percentage of Explained Variance | Generative Content |
---|---|---|---|---|
I | 4.842 | Exercising (0.402), safety (0.413), quality environment (0.430) | 0.153 | Perception of community garden |
II | 4.778 | Safety (0.486), accessibility (0.459) | 0.143 | Perception of small parks |
III | 4.460 | Safety (0.457), accessibility (0.421), quality environment (0.413) | 0.137 | Perception of large parks |
IV | 4.052 | Commerce (0.421), public events (0.425) | 0.133 | Social values of green space in general |
V | 3.137 | Safety (0.480), accessibility (0.449), quality environment (0.436) | 0.109 | Physical value of green space in general |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Private Housing | BMI | Private Housing | BMI | Public Housing | BMI | |
Coef. (S.E.) | Coef. (S.E.) | Coef. (S.E.) | Coef. (S.E.) | Coef. (S.E.) | Coef. (S.E.) | |
Housing tenure choice | ||||||
Private housing | 0.617 ** (0.279) | |||||
Public housing | −0.947 ** (0.367) | |||||
Green lifestyles | ||||||
Relative change of using green space | 0.060 ** (0.028) | −0.116 (0.160) | 0.060 ** (0.028) | −0.152 (0.160) | −0.021 (0.022) | −0.134 (0.159) |
Frequency of using green space now | −0.026 (0.031) | 0.230 (0.179) | −0.026 (0.031) | 0.248 (0.178) | 0.023 (0.023) | 0.262 (0.178) |
Perception of community garden | −0.009 (0.015) | 0.042 (0.086) | −0.009 (0.015) | 0.048 (0.085) | 0.015 (0.012) | 0.057 (0.085) |
Perception of small parks | −0.020 (0.018) | −0.176 * (0.100) | −0.002 (0.018) | −0.174 * (0.100) | −0.016 (0.014) | −0.189 * (0.100) |
Perception of large parks | −0.007 (0.016) | 0.164 * (0.088) | −0.007 (0.016) | 0.169 * (0.087) | −0.004 (0.012) | 0.161 * (0.087) |
Social values of green space in general | 0.001 (0.014) | −0.109 (0.079) | 0.001 (0.014) | −0.111 (0.078) | −0.001 (0.046) | −0.111 (0.078) |
Physical value of green space in general | 0.008 (0.013) | −0.002 (0.072) | 0.008 (0.013) | −0.008 (0.072) | 0.006 (0.010) | 0.001 (0.072) |
Covariates | ||||||
Age | −4.19 × 10−4 (0.003) | 0.054 *** (0.018) | −4.19 × 10−4 (0.003) | 0.055 *** (0.018) | −0.001 (0.002) | 0.053 *** (0.018) |
Educational level (college and above = 1) | −0.034 (0.066) | −1.070 *** (0.372) | −0.034 (0.066) | −1.056 *** (0.370) | 0.068 (0.050) | −1.017 *** (0.370) |
Gender (female = 1) | 0.085 * (0.046) | −2.092 *** (0.259) | 0.085 * (0.046) | −2.143 *** (0.259) | −0.032 (0.035) | −2.122 *** (0.258) |
Hukou origin (migrant = 1) | −0.316 *** (0.051) | −0.584 ** (0.285) | −0.316 *** (0.051) | −0.392 (0.296) | 0.090 ** (0.039) | −0.503 * (0.285) |
Hukou type (non-agriculture = 1) | 0.107 * (0.060) | 0.395 (0.336) | 0.107 * (0.060) | 0.332 (0.335) | −0.011 (0.046) | 0.391 (0.333) |
Marital status (married = 1) | 0.162 *** (0.060) | 0.454 (0.340) | 0.162 *** (0.060) | 0.353 (0.341) | −0.123 *** (0.046) | 0.341 (0.340) |
Level of household monthly income | 0.014 (0.021) | 0.140 (0.119) | 0.014 (0.021) | 0.136 (0.118) | 0.014 (0.016) | 0.160 (0.118) |
Job type (public sector = 1) | −0.004 (0.050) | −0.220 (0.282) | −0.004 (0.050) | −0.218 (0.280) | 0.080 ** (0.038) | −0.148 (0.281) |
Commuting time | 0.002 *** (0.001) | 0.005 (0.005) | 0.002 *** (0.001) | 0.004 (0.005) | −0.001 (0.001) | 0.004 (0.005) |
Employment status (retired = 1) | 0.018 (0.163) | −1.329 (0.917) | 0.018 (0.163) | −1.347 (0.912) | 0.114 (0.124) | −1.234 (0.911) |
Control variables | ||||||
Self-reported health | −0.449 *** (0.162) | −0.443 *** (0.161) | −0.459 *** (0.161) | |||
Time to nearest green space | 0.210 (0.133) | 0.232 * (0.133) | 0.253 * (0.133) | |||
Constant | 0.435 (0.149) | 22.262 (1.020) | 0.435 *** (0.149) | 21.919 *** (1.026) | 0.096 (0.114) | 22.273 *** (1.012) |
RMSEA | 0.060 | 0.024 | 0.075 | |||
CFI | 0.979 | 0.998 | 0.968 |
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Lu, T.; Lane, M.; Horst, D.V.d.; Liang, X.; Wu, J. Exploring the Impacts of Living in a “Green” City on Individual BMI: A Study of Lingang New Town in Shanghai, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7105. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197105
Lu T, Lane M, Horst DVd, Liang X, Wu J. Exploring the Impacts of Living in a “Green” City on Individual BMI: A Study of Lingang New Town in Shanghai, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(19):7105. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197105
Chicago/Turabian StyleLu, Tingting, Matthew Lane, Dan Van der Horst, Xin Liang, and Jianing Wu. 2020. "Exploring the Impacts of Living in a “Green” City on Individual BMI: A Study of Lingang New Town in Shanghai, China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 19: 7105. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197105
APA StyleLu, T., Lane, M., Horst, D. V. d., Liang, X., & Wu, J. (2020). Exploring the Impacts of Living in a “Green” City on Individual BMI: A Study of Lingang New Town in Shanghai, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(19), 7105. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197105