Explaining Income-Related Inequalities in Dietary Knowledge: Evidence from the China Health and Nutrition Survey
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Data
2.3. Variables
2.3.1. The Dietary Knowledge Score
2.3.2. Dietary Guideline Awareness
2.3.3. Independent Variables
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | All (N = 12,208) |
---|---|
Age, years | |
Mean (SD) | 52.59 ± 15.31 |
Gender | |
Men, n (%) | 5746 (47.07) |
Women, n (%) | 6462 (52.93) |
Missing | |
Income, RMB yuan | |
Mean (SD) | 24942.94 ± 39654.58 |
Education | |
Illiterate, n (%) | 871 (7.13) |
Elementary, n (%) | 2821 (23.11) |
Middle school, n (%) | 4069 (33.33) |
High school, n (%) | 2937 (24.06) |
University, n (%) | 1510 (12.37) |
Marital status | |
Unmarried, n (%) | 648 (5.31) |
Married, n (%) | 10,539 (86.33) |
Others, n (%) | 1021 (8.36) |
Basic medical insurance | |
No, n (%) | 328 (2.69) |
Yes, n (%) | 11,880 (97.31) |
Working status | |
No, n (%) | 6445 (52.79) |
Yes, n (%) | 5763 (47.21) |
Birthplace | |
North China, n (%) | 965 (7.90) |
Northeast, n (%) | 1714 (14.04) |
East China, n (%) | 3244 (26.57) |
Central China, n (%) | 3063 (25.09) |
South China, n (%) | 1191 (9.76) |
Western China, n (%) | 2031 (16.64) |
Urbanization index | |
Mean (SD) | 73.98 ± 17.07 |
Residential areas | |
Urban, n (%) | 4875 (39.93) |
Rural, n (%) | 7333 (60.07) |
Geographic region | |
Eastern China, n (%) | 5942 (48.67) |
Central China, n (%) | 3074 (25.18) |
Western China, n (%) | 3192 (26.15) |
Dietary Knowledge Score | Dietary Guideline Awareness | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | S.D. | F/t | p | n | % | χ2 | p | |
Age | 25.52 | <0.001 | 94.60 | <0.001 | ||||
18−44 | 9.41 | 3.72 | 1226 | 33.23 | ||||
45−59 | 9.17 | 3.55 | 1134 | 27.24 | ||||
≥60 | 8.82 | 4.01 | 1025 | 23.53 | ||||
Post-hoc test | “18−44” > “45−59” > “≥60” | “18−44” > “45−59” > “≥60” | ||||||
Gender | 0.77 | 0.44 | 0.81 | 0.37 | ||||
Men | 9.14 | 3.77 | 1571 | 27.34 | ||||
Women | 9.09 | 3.78 | 1814 | 28.07 | ||||
Income | 167.76 | <0.001 | 1072.66 | <0.001 | ||||
Poorest | 7.95 | 3.89 | 291 | 11.92 | ||||
Poorer | 8.36 | 3.72 | 412 | 16.89 | ||||
Middle | 9.19 | 3.52 | 643 | 26.38 | ||||
Richer | 9.84 | 3.44 | 830 | 33.92 | ||||
Richest | 10.23 | 3.80 | 1209 | 49.47 | ||||
Post-hoc test | Richest > Richer > Middle > Poorer > Poorest | Richest > Richer > Middle > Poorer > Poorest | ||||||
Educational attainment | 187.41 | <0.001 | 1776.81 | <0.001 | ||||
Illiterate | 7.20 | 3.92 | 34 | 3.90 | ||||
Elementary | 8.24 | 3.70 | 328 | 11.63 | ||||
Middle school | 9.12 | 3.51 | 882 | 21.68 | ||||
High school | 9.75 | 3.68 | 1232 | 41.95 | ||||
University | 10.64 | 3.81 | 909 | 60.20 | ||||
Post-hoc test | University > High school > Middle school > Elementary > Illiteracy | University > High school > Middle school > Elementary > Illiteracy | ||||||
Marital status | 20.58 | <0.001 | 50.70 | <0.001 | ||||
Unmarried | 9.23 | 3.91 | 213 | 32.87 | ||||
Married | 9.18 | 3.74 | 2980 | 28.28 | ||||
Others | 8.39 | 4.01 | 192 | 18.81 | ||||
Post-hoc test | Unmarried, Married > Others | Unmarried > Married > Others | ||||||
Basic medical insurance | −4.48 | <0.001 | 0.55 | 0.46 | ||||
No | 8.20 | 4.27 | 85 | 25.91 | ||||
Yes | 9.14 | 3.76 | 3300 | 27.78 | ||||
Working status | −9.16 | <0.001 | 109.22 | <0.001 | ||||
No | 8.82 | 3.94 | 1529 | 23.72 | ||||
Yes | 9.45 | 3.55 | 1856 | 32.21 | ||||
Residential areas | 14.87 | <0.001 | 544.53 | <0.001 | ||||
Urban | 9.73 | 3.83 | 1917 | 39.32 | ||||
Rural | 8.71 | 3.69 | 1468 | 20.02 | ||||
Geographic region | 375.75 | <0.001 | ||||||
Eastern China | 10.05 | 3.60 | 2232 | 37.56 | 559.25 | <0.001 | ||
Central China | 8.35 | 3.64 | 577 | 18.77 | ||||
Western China | 8.12 | 3.80 | 576 | 18.05 | ||||
Post-hoc test | Eastern China > Central China> Western China | Eastern China > Central China, Western China |
Questions on Dietary Knowledge | Urban | Rural | χ2 | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | |||
Choosing a diet with a lot of fresh fruits and vegetables is good for one’s health | 3903 | 80.06 | 5424 | 73.97 | 60.33 | <0.001 |
Eating a lot of sugar is good for one’s health | 3823 | 78.42 | 5150 | 70.23 | 100.85 | <0.001 |
Eating a variety of foods is good for one’s health | 3858 | 79.14 | 5413 | 73.82 | 45.39 | <0.001 |
Choosing a diet high in fat is good for one’s health | 3806 | 78.07 | 5081 | 69.29 | 114.05 | <0.001 |
Choosing a diet with a lot of staple foods is not good for one’s health | 2077 | 42.61 | 3006 | 40.99 | 3.13 | 0.077 |
Consuming a lot of animal products daily is good for one’s health | 3211 | 65.87 | 4467 | 60.92 | 30.75 | <0.001 |
Reducing the amount of fatty meat and animal fat in the diet is good for one’s health | 3560 | 73.03 | 4997 | 68.14 | 33.28 | <0.001 |
Consuming milk and dairy products is good for one’s health | 4098 | 84.06 | 5990 | 81.69 | 11.52 | 0.000 |
Consuming beans and bean products is good for one’s health | 4064 | 83.36 | 6153 | 83.91 | 0.64 | 0.425 |
Physical activities are good for one’s health | 3866 | 79.30 | 5667 | 77.28 | 7.00 | 0.008 |
Sweaty sports or other intense physical activities are not good for one’s health | 2324 | 47.67 | 3179 | 43.35 | 22.07 | <0.001 |
The heavier one’s body is, the healthier he or she is | 3908 | 80.16 | 5477 | 74.69 | 49.37 | <0.001 |
Variables | Dietary Knowledge Score | Dietary Guideline Awareness | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate | Std. Err. | p | Estimate | Std. Err. | p | |
Age (years) | −0.007 | 0.003 | 0.015 | 0.000 | 0.002 | 0.950 |
Gender | ||||||
Men (ref) | ||||||
Women | 0.149 | 0.068 | 0.028 | 0.252 | 0.048 | <0.001 |
Income | ||||||
Poorest (ref) | ||||||
Poorer | 0.065 | 0.103 | 0.524 | 0.082 | 0.088 | 0.351 |
Middle | 0.515 | 0.106 | <0.001 | 0.379 | 0.085 | <0.001 |
Richer | 0.805 | 0.110 | <0.001 | 0.463 | 0.085 | <0.001 |
Richest | 0.768 | 0.118 | <0.001 | 0.798 | 0.088 | <0.001 |
Education | ||||||
Illiterate (ref) | ||||||
Elementary | 0.841 | 0.141 | <0.001 | 1.059 | 0.181 | <0.001 |
Middle school | 1.342 | 0.146 | <0.001 | 1.641 | 0.179 | <0.001 |
High school | 1.479 | 0.156 | <0.001 | 2.340 | 0.181 | <0.001 |
University | 1.871 | 0.183 | <0.001 | 2.821 | 0.191 | <0.001 |
Marital status | ||||||
Unmarried (ref) | ||||||
Married | 0.521 | 0.156 | 0.001 | 0.392 | 0.107 | <0.001 |
Others | 0.359 | 0.202 | 0.076 | 0.258 | 0.147 | 0.079 |
Basic medical insurance | ||||||
No (ref) | ||||||
Yes | 1.207 | 0.200 | <0.001 | 0.292 | 0.143 | 0.041 |
Working status | ||||||
No (ref) | ||||||
Yes | 0.191 | 0.075 | 0.011 | 0.111 | 0.055 | 0.041 |
Birthplace | ||||||
North China (ref) | ||||||
Northeast | −0.602 | 0.147 | <0.001 | −0.380 | 0.093 | <0.001 |
East China | −0.420 | 0.132 | 0.001 | −0.187 | 0.081 | 0.021 |
Central China | −0.915 | 0.422 | 0.030 | 0.026 | 0.275 | 0.926 |
South China | 0.306 | 0.461 | 0.506 | 0.136 | 0.301 | 0.652 |
Western China | −0.481 | 0.453 | 0.288 | −0.206 | 0.293 | 0.482 |
Urbanization index | 0.015 | 0.002 | <0.001 | 0.010 | 0.002 | <0.001 |
Residential areas | ||||||
Urban (ref) | ||||||
Rural | −0.353 | 0.074 | <0.001 | −0.370 | 0.051 | <0.001 |
Geographic region | ||||||
Eastern China(ref) | ||||||
Central China | −0.804 | 0.410 | 0.050 | −0.852 | 0.269 | 0.002 |
Western China | −1.648 | 0.443 | <0.001 | −0.667 | 0.287 | 0.020 |
Variables | Dietary Knowledge Score | Dietary Guidelines | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Elasticity | CK | Absolute Contribution to C | Percentage Contribution to C | Elasticity | CK | Absolute Contribution to C | Percentage Contribution to C | |
Age (years) | −0.041 | −0.003 | 0.000 | 0.200 | 0.004 | −0.003 | 0.000 | −0.004 |
Gender | ||||||||
Men (ref) | ||||||||
Women | 0.025 | −0.003 | 0.000 | −0.148 | 0.243 | −0.003 | −0.001 | −0.283 |
Income | ||||||||
Poorest (ref) | ||||||||
Poorer | 0.001 | −0.401 | −0.001 | −1.065 | 0.010 | −0.401 | −0.004 | −1.528 |
Middle | 0.011 | −0.001 | 0.000 | −0.020 | 0.051 | −0.001 | 0.000 | −0.018 |
Richer | 0.018 | 0.399 | 0.007 | 13.123 | 0.063 | 0.399 | 0.025 | 9.187 |
Richest | 0.017 | 0.800 | 0.013 | 24.989 | 0.113 | 0.800 | 0.091 | 33.047 |
Education | ||||||||
Illiterate (ref) | ||||||||
Elementary | 0.021 | −0.210 | −0.004 | −8.288 | 0.176 | −0.210 | −0.037 | −13.477 |
Middle school | 0.049 | −0.070 | −0.003 | −6.361 | 0.386 | −0.070 | −0.027 | −9.870 |
High school | 0.039 | 0.172 | 0.007 | 12.413 | 0.426 | 0.172 | 0.073 | 26.696 |
University | 0.025 | 0.432 | 0.011 | 20.307 | 0.270 | 0.432 | 0.117 | 42.546 |
Marital status | ||||||||
Unmarried (ref) | ||||||||
Married | 0.049 | 0.003 | 0.000 | 0.318 | 0.196 | 0.003 | 0.001 | 0.250 |
Others | 0.003 | −0.099 | 0.000 | −0.604 | 0.014 | −0.099 | −0.001 | −0.520 |
Basic medical insurance | ||||||||
No (ref) | ||||||||
Yes | 0.129 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.306 | 0.166 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.078 |
Working status | ||||||||
No(ref) | ||||||||
Yes | 0.010 | 0.082 | 0.001 | 1.511 | 0.033 | 0.082 | 0.003 | 0.998 |
Birthplace | ||||||||
North China (ref) | ||||||||
Northeast | −0.009 | 0.053 | 0.000 | −0.905 | −0.031 | 0.053 | −0.002 | −0.598 |
East China | −0.012 | 0.219 | −0.003 | −4.972 | −0.031 | 0.219 | −0.007 | −2.452 |
Central China | −0.025 | −0.143 | 0.004 | 6.684 | 0.004 | −0.143 | −0.001 | −0.214 |
South China | 0.003 | −0.318 | −0.001 | −1.933 | 0.009 | −0.318 | −0.003 | −1.000 |
Western China | −0.009 | −0.154 | 0.001 | 2.501 | −0.021 | −0.154 | 0.003 | 1.169 |
Urbanization index | 0.120 | 0.053 | 0.006 | 11.868 | 0.469 | 0.053 | 0.025 | 9.135 |
Residential areas | ||||||||
Urban (ref) | ||||||||
Rural | −0.062 | −0.048 | 0.003 | 5.524 | −0.374 | −0.048 | 0.018 | 6.560 |
Geographic region | ||||||||
Eastern China (ref) | ||||||||
Central China | −0.022 | −0.144 | 0.003 | 5.935 | −0.120 | −0.144 | 0.017 | 6.305 |
Western China | −0.047 | −0.222 | 0.011 | 19.461 | −0.101 | −0.222 | 0.022 | 8.161 |
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Xu, Y.; Zhu, S.; Zhang, T.; Wang, D.; Hu, J.; Gao, J.; Zhou, Z. Explaining Income-Related Inequalities in Dietary Knowledge: Evidence from the China Health and Nutrition Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 532. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020532
Xu Y, Zhu S, Zhang T, Wang D, Hu J, Gao J, Zhou Z. Explaining Income-Related Inequalities in Dietary Knowledge: Evidence from the China Health and Nutrition Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(2):532. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020532
Chicago/Turabian StyleXu, Yongjian, Siyu Zhu, Tao Zhang, Duolao Wang, Junteng Hu, Jianmin Gao, and Zhongliang Zhou. 2020. "Explaining Income-Related Inequalities in Dietary Knowledge: Evidence from the China Health and Nutrition Survey" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 2: 532. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020532