The Relationship between Physical Exercise and Cognitive Function in Korean Middle Aged and Elderly Adults without Dementia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Outcome Measure
2.3. Physical Exercise
2.4. Covariates
2.5. Statistical Analysis
2.6. Ethical Concerns
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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MMSE Scores | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | (%) | Mean ± SD | p-Value | |||
Total Exercise Time per Week (min/week) | ||||||
None | 5173 | (58.2) | 26.43 | ± | 3.38 | <0.0001 |
Q1 | 676 | (7.6) | 27.47 | ± | 2.77 | |
Q2 | 1157 | (13.0) | 27.23 | ± | 2.85 | |
Q3 | 908 | (10.2) | 27.52 | ± | 2.65 | |
Q4 | 974 | (11.0) | 27.21 | ± | 2.75 | |
Duration per exercise (minutes/exercise) | ||||||
None | 5173 | (58.2) | 26.43 | ± | 3.38 | <0.0001 |
Short (≤59) | 1220 | (13.7) | 26.96 | ± | 2.98 | |
Moderate (60–119) | 1822 | (20.5) | 27.45 | ± | 2.70 | |
Long (≥120) | 673 | (7.6) | 27.73 | ± | 2.44 | |
Exercise frequency per week (days/week) | ||||||
Not frequent (0) | 5173 | (58.2) | 26.43 | ± | 3.38 | <0.0001 |
Moderate (1–3) | 1472 | (16.6) | 27.68 | ± | 2.54 | |
Frequent (4–7) | 2243 | (25.2) | 27.11 | ± | 2.88 | |
Sex | ||||||
Male | 4081 | (45.9) | 27.39 | ± | 2.79 | <0.0001 |
Female | 4807 | (54.1) | 26.32 | ± | 3.39 | |
Age | ||||||
45–64 | 3196 | (36.0) | 28.14 | ± | 2.25 | <0.0001 |
65 or above | 2596 | (29.2) | 27.08 | ± | 2.86 | |
Household income | ||||||
Low | 2245 | (25.3) | 25.88 | ± | 3.41 | <0.0001 |
Low-middle | 2314 | (26.0) | 26.40 | ± | 3.32 | |
Middle-high | 2115 | (23.8) | 27.15 | ± | 2.90 | |
High | 2214 | (24.9) | 27.85 | ± | 2.59 | |
Educational level | ||||||
High school or below | 7796 | (87.7) | 26.56 | ± | 3.23 | <0.0001 |
College or above | 1092 | (12.3) | 28.62 | ± | 1.91 | |
Marital status | ||||||
Single or separated | 1622 | (18.2) | 25.31 | ± | 3.67 | <0.0001 |
Married and cohabiting with spouse | 7266 | (81.8) | 27.14 | ± | 2.95 | |
Depressive symptoms | ||||||
No | 6417 | (72.2) | 27.25 | ± | 2.94 | <0.0001 |
Yes | 2471 | (27.8) | 25.66 | ± | 3.44 | |
Chronic diseases | ||||||
None | 5999 | (67.5) | 27.12 | ± | 3.04 | 0.8421 |
1 | 2285 | (25.7) | 26.23 | ± | 3.30 | |
2 or above | 604 | (6.8) | 25.89 | ± | 3.48 | |
Smoking status | ||||||
No | 7079 | (79.6) | 26.66 | ± | 3.23 | 0.9359 |
Yes | 1809 | (20.4) | 27.40 | ± | 2.83 | |
Perceived health status | ||||||
Fair | 4580 | (51.5) | 27.72 | ± | 2.65 | <0.0001 |
Poor | 4308 | (48.5) | 25.84 | ± | 3.38 | |
Region | ||||||
Rural areas | 4044 | (45.5) | 27.10 | ± | 3.05 | <0.0001 |
Small to medium sized cities | 2941 | (33.1) | 26.83 | ± | 3.15 | |
Large cities | 1903 | (21.4) | 26.16 | ± | 3.36 | |
Total | 8888 | (100.0) | 26.81 | ± | 3.17 |
Year | Mean ± SD | ||
---|---|---|---|
2006 | 26.81 | ± | 3.17 |
2008 | 26.61 | ± | 3.20 |
2010 | 26.61 | ± | 3.28 |
2012 | 26.77 | ± | 3.23 |
2014 | 26.61 | ± | 3.39 |
2016 | 26.87 | ± | 3.31 |
2018 | 26.72 | ± | 3.39 |
Model 1 * | Model 2 * | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | SE | p-Value | β | SE | p-Value | |
Total exercise time per week (minutes/week) | ||||||
None | Ref | Ref | ||||
Q1 | 0.5261 | 0.0446 | <0.0001 | 0.3523 | 0.0436 | <0.0001 |
Q2 | 0.3244 | 0.0448 | <0.0001 | 0.2011 | 0.0433 | <0.0001 |
Q3 | 0.5815 | 0.0415 | <0.0001 | 0.4075 | 0.0399 | <0.0001 |
Q4 | 0.5626 | 0.0473 | <0.0001 | 0.3144 | 0.0463 | <0.0001 |
Duration per exercise (minutes/exercise) | ||||||
None | Ref | Ref | ||||
Short (≤59) | 0.2840 | 0.0426 | <0.0001 | 0.2903 | 0.0414 | <0.0001 |
Moderate (60–119) | 0.5742 | 0.0349 | <0.0001 | 0.3576 | 0.0337 | <0.0001 |
Long (≥120) | 0.7321 | 0.052 | <0.0001 | 0.2662 | 0.0508 | <0.0001 |
Exercise frequency per week (days/week) | ||||||
Not frequent (0) | Ref | Ref | ||||
Moderate (1–3) | 0.5433 | 0.0377 | <0.0001 | 0.2713 | 0.0364 | <0.0001 |
Frequent (4–7) | 0.4692 | 0.0352 | <0.0001 | 0.3552 | 0.0338 | <0.0001 |
Sex | ||||||
Male | Ref | |||||
Female | −0.8513 | 0.0461 | <0.0001 | |||
Age | ||||||
45–64 | Ref | |||||
65 or above | 0.2269 | 0.0421 | <0.0001 | |||
Age2 | −0.0007 | 0.0000 | <0.0001 | |||
Household income | ||||||
Low | Ref | |||||
Low-middle | 0.3337 | 0.0419 | <0.0001 | |||
Middle-high | 0.6016 | 0.043 | <0.0001 | |||
High | 0.8689 | 0.0445 | <0.0001 | |||
Educational level | ||||||
High school or below | Ref | |||||
College or above | 0.0257 | 0.0511 | 0.6150 | |||
Marital status | ||||||
Single or separated | Ref | |||||
Married and cohabiting with spouse | 0.3077 | 0.0571 | <0.0001 | |||
Depressive symptoms | ||||||
No | Ref | |||||
Yes | −0.6813 | 0.0303 | <0.0001 | |||
Chronic diseases | ||||||
None | Ref | |||||
1 | −0.0430 | 0.0414 | 0.2991 | |||
2 or above | −0.1125 | 0.0689 | 0.1026 | |||
Smoking status | ||||||
No | Ref | |||||
Yes | −0.0501 | 0.0482 | 0.2988 | |||
Perceived health status | ||||||
Poor | Ref | |||||
Fair | 0.4301 | 0.0296 | <0.0001 | |||
Region | ||||||
Rural areas | Ref | |||||
Small to medium sized cities | −0.2952 | 0.0461 | <0.0001 | |||
Large cities | −0.5011 | 0.0537 | <0.0001 |
MMSE Scores * | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | SE | p-Value | β | SE | p-Value | |
Age | Middle-aged (45–64) | Elderly (65+) | ||||
Total exercise time per week (min/week) | ||||||
None | Ref | Ref | ||||
Q1 | 0.2553 | 0.0479 | <0.0001 | 0.5403 | 0.0778 | <0.0001 |
Q2 | 0.1600 | 0.0494 | 0.0012 | 0.2442 | 0.0727 | 0.0008 |
Q3 | 0.2115 | 0.0465 | <0.0001 | 0.6488 | 0.0674 | <0.0001 |
Q4 | 0.1023 | 0.0565 | 0.0701 | 0.5267 | 0.0727 | <0.0001 |
Education level | Middle school or below | High school or above | ||||
Total exercise time per week (min/week) | ||||||
None | Ref | Ref | ||||
Q1 | 0.3441 | 0.0458 | <0.0001 | 0.4271 | 0.122 | 0.0005 |
Q2 | 0.1781 | 0.045 | <0.0001 | 0.4512 | 0.1296 | 0.0005 |
Q3 | 0.4161 | 0.0414 | <0.0001 | 0.1059 | 0.1338 | 0.4287 |
Q4 | 0.3221 | 0.0487 | <0.0001 | 0.1383 | 0.138 | 0.3164 |
Marital status | Single or separated | Married and cohabiting with spouse | ||||
Total exercise time per week (min/week) | ||||||
None | Ref | Ref | ||||
Q1 | 0.3593 | 0.1189 | 0.0025 | 0.3460 | 0.0461 | <0.0001 |
Q2 | 0.2207 | 0.1154 | 0.0559 | 0.1923 | 0.0458 | <0.0001 |
Q3 | 0.4616 | 0.1203 | 0.0001 | 0.3906 | 0.0414 | <0.0001 |
Q4 | 0.5174 | 0.1374 | 0.0002 | 0.2765 | 0.0484 | <0.0001 |
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Koh, Y.; Oh, Y.; Park, H.; Kim, W.; Park, E.-C. The Relationship between Physical Exercise and Cognitive Function in Korean Middle Aged and Elderly Adults without Dementia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 8821. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238821
Koh Y, Oh Y, Park H, Kim W, Park E-C. The Relationship between Physical Exercise and Cognitive Function in Korean Middle Aged and Elderly Adults without Dementia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(23):8821. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238821
Chicago/Turabian StyleKoh, Youngseung, Yeonsu Oh, Haesung Park, Woorim Kim, and Eun-Cheol Park. 2020. "The Relationship between Physical Exercise and Cognitive Function in Korean Middle Aged and Elderly Adults without Dementia" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 23: 8821. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238821