Sources and Determinants of Wholegrain Intake in a Cohort of Australian Children Aged 12–14 Months
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data and Study Population
2.2. Dietary Analysis
2.3. Statistical Analysis
2.4. Sensitivity Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participant Characteristics
3.2. Wholegrain Intake and Sources
3.3. Determinants of Wholegrain Intake
3.4. Sensitivity Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Participants N = 828 | Participants with Plausible Energy Intake n = 703 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Wholegrain intake (g/day) | Mean (±SD) | 95% CI | Mean (±SD) | 95% CI |
19.5 (±14) | 18.5–20.4 | 18.5 (±13) | 17.6–19.5 | |
Median | IQR | Median | IQR | |
18.0 | 8.3–27.4 | 17.5 | 7.9–26.0 | |
N | % | n | % | |
Maternal characteristics | ||||
Maternal age at baseline (years) | ||||
<25 | 74 | 8.9 | 63 | 9.0 |
25–34 | 577 | 69.7 | 485 | 69.0 |
≥35 | 177 | 21.4 | 155 | 22.0 |
Number of children | ||||
1 | 389 | 48.6 | 337 | 49.5 |
2 | 291 | 36.3 | 247 | 36.3 |
≥3 | 121 | 15.1 | 97 | 14.2 |
Maternal education | ||||
High school/vocational | 356 | 43.2 | 311 | 44.4 |
Some university and above | 468 | 56.8 | 389 | 55.6 |
IRSAD | ||||
Decile 1–2: Most disadvantaged | 120 | 14.6 | 102 | 14.6 |
Decile 3–4 | 173 | 21.0 | 146 | 20.9 |
Decile 5–6 | 174 | 21.2 | 150 | 21.5 |
Decile 7–8 | 160 | 19.5 | 136 | 19.5 |
Decile 9–10: Most advantaged | 195 | 23.7 | 163 | 23.4 |
Maternal country of birth | ||||
Australia or New Zealand | 610 | 74.1 | 511 | 73.2 |
United Kingdom | 31 | 3.8 | 24 | 3.4 |
India | 50 | 6.1 | 43 | 6.2 |
China | 37 | 4.5 | 35 | 5.0 |
Asia—other a | 52 | 6.3 | 47 | 6.7 |
Other a | 43 | 5.2 | 38 | 5.4 |
Child characteristics | ||||
Sex | ||||
Male | 452 | 54.6 | 389 | 55.3 |
Female | 376 | 45.4 | 314 | 44.7 |
Age of solid food introduction | ||||
<17 weeks | 202 | 24.6 | 1630 | 23.4 |
≥17 weeks | 620 | 75.4 | 534 | 76.6 |
Food Group | All Participants | Consumers Only | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) (g/Day) | 95% CI2 | % contribution of Food Group to Wholegrain Intake a | n (%) | Mean (SD) (g/Day) | 95% CI | |
Total Cereals and cereal products b | 52.5 (46.6) | 49.3–55.7 | 89.90% | 710 (85.7) | 61.2 (44.7) | 57.9–64.5 |
Flours and other cereal grains and starches c | 5.5 (17.0) | 4.35–6.67 | 9.40% | 130 (15.7) | 35.1 (28.3) | 30.2–40.0 |
Regular breads, and bread rolls (plain/unfilled/untopped varieties) | 15.5 (25.7) | 13.8–17.3 | 26.60% | 374 (45.2) | 34.4 (28.6) | 31.5–37.3 |
English‑style muffins, flat breads, and savory and sweet breads | 1.6 (11.1) | 0.9–2.4 | 2.80% | 45 (5.4) | 30.0 (38.2) | 18.6–41.5 |
Pasta and pasta products (without sauce) | 0.9 (6.0) | 0.4–1.3 | 1.50% | 46 (5.6) | 15.4 (20.8) | 9.18–21.5 |
Breakfast cereals, ready to eat | 23.4 (29.0) | 21.4–25.4 | 40.00% | 472 (57.0) | 41.0 (27.4) | 38.5–43.5 |
Breakfast cereals, hot porridge style | 4.2 (14.9) | 3.2–5.2 | 7.20% | 105 (12.7) | 32.9 (28.4) | 27.4–38.4 |
Savory biscuits | 0.8 (3.4) | 0.6–1.0 | 1.40% | 82 (9.9) | 8.5 (7.4) | 6.9–10.1 |
Dairy milk substitutes, unflavored d | 0.8 (9.9) | 0.1–1.5 | 1.40% | 16 (1.9) | 41.1 (60.1) | 9.1–73.2 |
Total Commercial Infant foods | 4.9 (11.3) | 4.1–5.6 | 8.30% | 390 (47.1) | 10.3 (14.7) | 8.8–11.8 |
Infant cereal products e | 3.2 (10.7) | 2.5–3.9 | 5.50% | 170 (20.5) | 15.6 (19.1) | 12.7–18.5 |
Infant foods—other f | 1.7 (3.4) | 1.4–1.9 | 2.80% | 302 (36.5) | 4.5 (4.4) | 4.0–5.0 |
Unadjusted Mean | Adjusted Mean | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
g/day | 95% CI | g/day | 95% CI | β | SE | p | |
Maternal Characteristics | |||||||
Maternal age at baseline (years) | |||||||
<25 | 14.8 | 12.1–17.4 | 10.3 | 6.4–14.1 | −5.468 | 2.118 | 0.01 |
25–34 | 20.1 | 18.9–21.3 | 16.2 | 14.2–18.2 | 0.467 | 1.236 | 0.706 |
≥35 | 19.3 | 17.4–21.1 | 15.7 | 13.2–18.3 | REF | ||
Maternal education | |||||||
High school/vocational | 18.9 | 17.5–20.3 | 13.1 | 10.6–15.6 | −1.908 | 1.082 | 0.078 |
Some university and above | 19.8 | 18.5–21.1 | 15 | 12.8–17.2 | REF | ||
IRSAD | |||||||
Decile 1–2: Most disadvantaged | 18.8 | 16.2–21.3 | 14.4 | 11.2–17.5 | −0/071 | 1.662 | 0.966 |
Decile 3–4 | 19.2 | 17.3–21.2 | 13.7 | 11.0–16.5 | −0.709 | 1.476 | 0.631 |
Decile 5–6 | 20.3 | 18.0–22.5 | 15.1 | 12.4–18.0 | 0.724 | 1.454 | 0.619 |
Decile 7–8 | 17.7 | 15.8–19.6 | 12.6 | 9.7–15.4 | −1.843 | 1.498 | 0.219 |
Decile 9–10: Most advantaged | 20.6 | 18.5–22.8 | 14.4 | 11.7–17.2 | REF | ||
Maternal country of birth | |||||||
Australia or New Zealand | 20.7 | 19.6–21.8 | 18.6 | REF | REF | ||
United Kingdom | 23.1 | 17.3–28.9 | 20.6 | 15.5–25.6 | 1.977 | 2.648 | 0.456 |
India | 19.2 | 15.4–23.0 | 15.7 | 11.5–19.9 | −2.880 | 2.104 | 0.172 |
China | 9.7 | 6.8–12.6 | 6.1 | 1.3–11.0 | −12.425 | 2.405 | <0.001 |
Asia—other b | 12.3 | 9.5–15.2 | 9.4 | 5.4–13.5 | −9.132 | 2.074 | <0.001 |
Other b | 17.1 | 13.1–21.1 | 14 | 9.5–18.4 | −4.601 | 2.209 | 0.038 |
Number of children | |||||||
1 | 19.7 | 18.3–21.2 | 15.3 | 13.1–17.4 | REF | ||
2 | 20.1 | 18.5–21.7 | 15.2 | 12.8–17.7 | −0.074 | 1.093 | 0.946 |
≥3 | 17.4 | 15.2–19.7 | 11.7 | 8.6–14.8 | −3.587 | 1.479 | 0.016 |
Child Characteristics | |||||||
Sex | |||||||
Male | 20.1 | 18.8–21.4 | 15.2 | 12.9–17.4 | 2.191 | 0.973 | 0.025 |
Female | 18.7 | 17.3–20.0 | 13 | 10.6–15.3 | REF | ||
Age of complementary food introduction | |||||||
<17 weeks | |||||||
≥17 weeks | 19.2 | 17.2–21.3 | 14.2 | 11.6–16.7 | 0.184 | 1.164 | 0.874 |
19.5 | 18.5–20.6 | 14 | 11.8–16.1 | REF |
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Hassan, A.; Devenish, G.; Golley, R.K.; Ha, D.; Do, L.G.; Scott, J.A. Sources and Determinants of Wholegrain Intake in a Cohort of Australian Children Aged 12–14 Months. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 9229. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249229
Hassan A, Devenish G, Golley RK, Ha D, Do LG, Scott JA. Sources and Determinants of Wholegrain Intake in a Cohort of Australian Children Aged 12–14 Months. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(24):9229. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249229
Chicago/Turabian StyleHassan, Amira, Gemma Devenish, Rebecca K. Golley, Diep Ha, Loc G. Do, and Jane A. Scott. 2020. "Sources and Determinants of Wholegrain Intake in a Cohort of Australian Children Aged 12–14 Months" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 24: 9229. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249229