In Utero Exposure to Aluminium and Other Neurotoxic Elements in Urban Coastal South African Women at Delivery: An Emerging Concern
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Sample Collection and Analytical Procedures
2.3. Covariates
2.4. Statistical Analysis
2.5. Ethical Considerations
3. Results
3.1. Participant Characteristics
3.2. Obstetric and Birth Outcomes
3.3. Association between Exposure to Al, Maternal Covariates and Infant Anthropometry Measures at Birth
3.4. Concentration of Al, Selected Essential Elements and Neurotoxic Metals
3.5. Prenatal Sex-Specific Spearman’s Association between Maternal Serum Al and Essential and Neurotoxic Elements
3.6. Univariate and Multi-Variable Regression Analyses
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Alexandrov, P.N.; Pogue, A.I.; Lukiw, W.J. Synergism in Aluminum and Mercury Neurotoxicity. Integr. Food Nutr. Metab. 2018, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Jadoon, S.; Malik, A. DNA Damage by Heavy Metals in Animals and Human Beings: An Overview. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2017, 6, 235–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wright, R.O.; Baccarelli, A. Metals and Neurotoxicology. J. Nutr. 2007, 137, 2809–2813. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ittel, T.H. Determinants of Gastrointestinal Absorption and Distribution of Aluminium in Health and Uraemia. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 1993, 8, 17–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Roberts, E. Alzheimer’s Disease may Begin in the Nose and may be Caused by Aluminosilicates. Neurobiol. Aging 1986, 7, 561–567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Exley, C.; Burgess, E.; Day, J.P.; Jeffery, E.H.; Melethil, S.; Yokel, R.A. Aluminum Toxicokinetics. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1996, 48, 569–584. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Barr, R.J.; Alpern, K.S.; Jay, S. Histiocytic Reaction Associated with Topical Aluminum Chloride (Drysol Reaction). J. Dermatol. Surg. Oncol. 1993, 19, 1017–1021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moxon, D.R.; Jeffery, E.H. Aluminium Distribution between Plasma and Erythrocytes Varies with Aluminium Load and the use of Antocoagulants. FASEB J. 1991, 5, 876. [Google Scholar]
- Walker, V.R.; Sutton, R.A.; Meirav, O.; Sossi, V.; Johnson, R.; Klein, J.; Fink, D.; Middleton, R. Tissue Disposition of 26aluminum in Rats Measured by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry. Clin. Invest. Med. 1994, 17, 420–425. [Google Scholar]
- Yokel, R.A.; McNamara, P.J. Aluminium Toxicokinetics: An Updated Minireview. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2001, 88, 159–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, L. Entry and Deposit of Aluminum in the Brain. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2018, 1091, 39–51. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Nurchi, V.M.; Crisponi, G.; Bertolasi, V.; Faa, G.; Remelli, M. Aluminium-dependent human diseases and chelating properties of aluminium chelators for biomedical applications. In Metal Ions in Neurological Systems; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2012; pp. 103–123. [Google Scholar]
- Bondy, S.C. Low Levels of Aluminum can Lead to Behavioral and Morphological Changes Associated with Alzheimer’s Disease and Age-Related Neurodegeneration. Neurotoxicology 2016, 52, 222–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bjorklund, G.; Stejskal, V.; Urbina, M.A.; Dadar, M.; Chirumbolo, S.; Mutter, J. Metals and Parkinson’s Disease: Mechanisms and Biochemical Processes. Curr. Med. Chem. 2018, 25, 2198–2214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Crisponi, G.; Fanni, D.; Gerosa, C.; Nemolato, S.; Nurchi, V.M.; Crespo-Alonso, M.; Lachowicz, J.I.; Faa, G. The Meaning of Aluminium Exposure on Human Health and Aluminium-Related Diseases. Biomol. Concepts 2013, 4, 77–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lopez, F.F.; Cabrera, C.; Lorenzo, M.L.; Lopez, M.C. Aluminium Content of Drinking Waters, Fruit Juices and Soft Drinks: Contribution to Dietary Intake. Sci. Total Environ. 2002, 292, 205–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Röllin, H.; Nogueira, C.; Olutola, B.; Channa, K.; Odland, J. Prenatal Exposure to Aluminum and Status of Selected Essential Trace Elements in Rural South African Women at Delivery. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rollin, H.B.; Theodorou, P.; Kilroe-Smith, T.A. Deposition of Aluminium in Tissues of Rabbits Exposed to Inhalation of Low Concentrations of Al2O3 Dust. Br. J. Ind. Med. 1991, 48, 389–391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pineau, A.; Guillard, O.; Fauconneau, B.; Favreau, F.; Marty, M.; Gaudin, A.; Vincent, C.M.; Marrauld, A.; Marty, J. In Vitro Study of Percutaneous Absorption of Aluminum from Antiperspirants through Human Skin in the Franz™ Diffusion Cell. J. Inorg. Biochem. 2012, 110, 21–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schäfer, U.; Seifert, M. Oral Intake of Aluminum from Foodstuffs, Food Additives, Food Packaging, Cookware and Pharmaceutical Preparations with Respect to Dietary Regulations. Trace Elem. Electrolytes 2006, 23, 150–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klotz, K.; Weistenhofer, W.; Neff, F.; Hartwig, A.; van Thriel, C.; Drexler, H. The Health Effects of Aluminum Exposure. Dtsch. Arztebl. Int. 2017, 114, 653–659. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Reinke, C.M.; Breitkreutz, J.; Leuenberger, H. Aluminium in Over-the-Counter Drugs: Risks Outweigh Benefits? Drug Saf. 2003, 26, 1011–1025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nestel, A.W.; Meyers, A.M.; Paiker, J.; Rollin, H.B. Effect of Calcium Supplement Preparation Containing Small Amounts of Citrate on the Absorption of Aluminium in Normal Subjects and in Renal Failure Patients. Nephron 1994, 68, 197–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Domingo, J.L. Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Aluminum: A Review. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1995, 17, 515–521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gonda, Z.; Lehotzky, K.; Miklosi, A. Neurotoxicity Induced by Prenatal Aluminum Exposure in Rats. Neurotoxicology 1996, 17, 459–469. [Google Scholar]
- Golub, M.S.; Domingo, J.L. What we Know and what we Need to Know about Developmental Aluminum Toxicity. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1996, 48, 585–597. [Google Scholar]
- Nasim, M. Effects of Aluminum Sulfate on some Maternal Variables in Pregnant Mice. Anat. Physiol. Biochem. Int. J. 2017, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Klein, J.P.; Mold, M.; Mery, L.; Cottier, M.; Exley, C. Aluminum Content of Human Semen: Implications for Semen Quality. Reprod. Toxicol. 2014, 50, 43–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rzymski, P.; Niedzielski, P.; Poniedzialek, B.; Tomczyk, K.; Rzymski, P. Identification of Toxic Metals in Human Embryonic Tissues. Arch. Med. Sci. 2018, 14, 415–421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Exley, C. An Aluminium Adjuvant in a Vaccine is an Acute Exposure to Aluminium. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol. 2020, 57, 57–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lyons-Weiler, J.; Ricketson, R. Reconsideration of the Immunotherapeutic Pediatric Safe Dose Levels of Aluminum. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol. 2018, 48, 67–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mold, M.; Umar, D.; King, A.; Exley, C. Aluminium in Brain Tissue in Autism. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol. 2018, 46, 76–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fanni, D.; Ambu, R.; Gerosa, C.; Nemolato, S.; Iacovidou, N.; Van Eyken, P.; Fanos, V.; Zaffanello, M.; Faa, G. Aluminum Exposure and Toxicity in Neonates: A Practical Guide to Halt Aluminum Overload in the Prenatal and Perinatal Periods. World J. Pediatrics 2014, 10, 101–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fewtrell, M.S.; Edmonds, C.J.; Isaacs, E.; Bishop, N.J.; Lucas, A. Aluminium Exposure from Parenteral Nutrition in Preterm Infants and Later Health Outcomes during Childhood and Adolescence. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2011, 70, 299–304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Poole, R.L.; Hintz, S.R.; Mackenzie, N.I.; Kerner, J.A., Jr. Aluminum Exposure from Pediatric Parenteral Nutrition: Meeting the New FDA Regulation. J. Parenter. Enteral Nutr. 2008, 32, 242–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wier, H.A.; Kuhn, R.J. Aluminum Toxicity in Neonatal Parenteral Nutrition: What can we do? Ann. Pharmacother. 2012, 46, 137–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vahter, M.; Akesson, A.; Liden, C.; Ceccatelli, S.; Berglund, M. Gender Differences in the Disposition and Toxicity of Metals. Environ. Res. 2007, 104, 85–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Channa, K.; Odland, J.O.; Kootbodien, T.; Theodorou, P.; Naik, I.; Sandanger, T.M.; Rollin, H.B. Differences in Prenatal Exposure to Mercury in South African Communities Residing Along the Indian Ocean. Sci. Total Environ. 2013, 463–464, 11–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rollin, H.B.; Channa, K.; Olutola, B.G.; Odland, J.O. Evaluation of in Utero Exposure to Arsenic in South Africa. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 575, 338–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rollin, H.B.; Olutola, B.; Channa, K.; Odland, J.O. Reduction of in Utero Lead Exposures in South African Populations: Positive Impact of Unleaded Petrol. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0186445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Le Cook, B.; Manning, W.G. Thinking Beyond the Mean: A Practical Guide for using Quantile Regression Methods for Health Services Research. Shanghai Arch. Psychiatry 2013, 25, 55–59. [Google Scholar]
- Rudge, C.V.; Calderon, I.M.; Rudge, M.V.; Volpato, G.; Silva, J.L.; Duarte, G.; Neto, C.M.; Sass, N.; Mattar, R.; Rollin, H.B.; et al. Toxic and Essential Elements in Blood from Delivering Women in Selected Areas of Sao Paulo State, Brazil. J. Environ. Monit. 2011, 13, 563–571. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nieboer, E.; Gibson, B.L.; Oxman, A.D.; Kramer, J.R. Health Effects of Aluminum: A Critical Review with Emphasis on Aluminum in Drinking Water. Environ. Rev. 1995, 3, 29–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Toxicological Profile for Aluminium; ATSDR: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Schwalfenberg, G.; Rodushkin, I.; Genuis, S.J. Heavy Metal Contamination of Prenatal Vitamins. Toxicol. Rep. 2018, 5, 390–395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wu, A.H.B. Tietz Clinical Guide to Laboratory Tests, 6th ed.; Saunders: St. Louis, MS, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Rahbar, M.H.; Samms-Vaughan, M.; Dickerson, A.S.; Hessabi, M.; Bressler, J.; Desai, C.C.; Shakespeare-Pellington, S.; Reece, J.A.; Morgan, R.; Loveland, K.A.; et al. Concentration of Lead, Mercury, Cadmium, Aluminum, Arsenic and Manganese in Umbilical Cord Blood of Jamaican Newborns. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 4481–4501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- ARUP Laboratories. Associated Regional and University Pathologists. Available online: http://www.aruplab.com/testing (accessed on 10 January 2018).
- Mayo Medical Laboratories. Rochester, MN, USA. Available online: http://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog (accessed on 10 January 2018).
- Vukelić, J.; Kapamadžija, A.; Petrović, D.; Grujić, Z.; Novakov-Mikić, A.; Kopitović, V.; Bjelica, A. Variations of Serum Copper Values in Pregnancy. Srp. Arh. Celok. Lek. 2012, 140, 42–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McArdle, H.J.; Andersen, H.S.; Jones, H.; Gambling, L. Copper and Iron Transport Across the Placenta: Regulation and Interactions. J. Neuroendocrinol. 2008, 20, 427–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alebic-Juretic, A.; Frkovic, A. Plasma Copper Concentrations in Pathological Pregnancies. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol. 2005, 19, 191–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meram, I.; Bozkurt, A.I.; Ahi, S.; Ozgur, S. Plasma Copper and Zinc Levels in Pregnant Women in Gaziantep, Turkey. Saudi Med. J. 2003, 24, 1121–1125. [Google Scholar]
- Martin-Lagos, F.; Navarro-Alarcon, M.; Terres-Martos, C.; de la Serrana, H.L.G.; Perez-Valero, V.; Lopez-Martinez, M. Zinc and Copper Concentrations in Serum from Spanish Women during Pregnancy. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 1998, 61, 61–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Milne, D.B. Effects of Folic Acid Supplements on Zinc-65 Absorption and Retention. J. Trace Elem. Exp. Med. 1989, 2, 297–304. [Google Scholar]
- Simmer, K.; Iles, C.; James, C.; Thompson, R. Are Iron-Folate Supplements Harmful? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1987, 45, 122–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bermudez, L.; Garcia-Vicent, C.; Lopez, J.; Torro, M.I.; Lurbe, E. Assessment of Ten Trace Elements in Umbilical Cord Blood and Maternal Blood: Association with Birth Weight. J. Transl. Med. 2015, 13, 291-015-0654-2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Liu, X.; Zhang, Y.; Piao, J.; Mao, D.; Li, Y.; Li, W.; Yang, L.; Yang, X. Reference Values of 14 Serum Trace Elements for Pregnant Chinese Women: A Cross-Sectional Study in the China Nutrition and Health Survey 2010–2012. Nutrients 2017, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhang, Z.; Yuan, E.; Liu, J.; Lou, X.; Jia, L.; Li, X.; Zhang, L. Gestational Age-Specific Reference Intervals for Blood Copper, Zinc, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Lead, and Cadmium during Normal Pregnancy. Clin. Biochem. 2013, 46, 777–780. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, J.; Yang, H.; Shi, H.; Shen, C.; Zhou, W.; Dai, Q.; Jiang, Y. Blood Copper, Zinc, Calcium, and Magnesium Levels during Different Duration of Pregnancy in Chinese. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2010, 135, 31–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Callan, A.C.; Hinwood, A.L.; Ramalingam, M.; Boyce, M.; Heyworth, J.; McCafferty, P.; Odland, J.O. Maternal Exposure to Metals--Concentrations and Predictors of Exposure. Environ. Res. 2013, 126, 111–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Polanska, K.; Hanke, W.; Pawlas, N.; Wesolowska, E.; Jankowska, A.; Jagodic, M.; Mazej, D.; Dominowska, J.; Grzesiak, M.; Mirabella, F.; et al. Sex-Dependent Impact of Low-Level Lead Exposure during Prenatal Period on Child Psychomotor Functions. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 2018, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Polanska, K.; Hanke, W.; Krol, A.; Gromadzinska, J.; Kuras, R.; Janasik, B.; Wasowicz, W.; Mirabella, F.; Chiarotti, F.; Calamandrei, G. Micronutrients during Pregnancy and Child Psychomotor Development: Opposite Effects of Zinc and Selenium. Environ. Res. 2017, 158, 583–589. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Torres-Rojas, C.; Jones, B.C. Sex Differences in Neurotoxicogenetics. Front. Genet. 2018, 9, 196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singh, G.; Singh, V.; Sobolewski, M.; Cory-Slechta, D.A.; Schneider, J.S. Sex-Dependent Effects of Developmental Lead Exposure on the Brain. Front. Genet. 2018, 9, 89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Characteristic | Total (N = 200) |
---|---|
Age (Years) [mean, (standard deviation, SD)] | 26.1 (6.3) |
Marital Status (%, n) | |
Married | 37.1 (73) |
Single/divorced/widowed | 42.1 (83) |
Co-habiting | 20.8 (41) |
Education (%, n) | |
None/Primary | 1.0 (2) |
Secondary | 90 (180) |
Tertiary | 7.5 (15) |
Race/Ethnicity (%, n) | |
African/Black | 59.6 (115) |
Others | 40.4 (78) |
Percentage Unemployed (%, n) | 62.2 (122) |
Ownership of Home (%, n) | |
Owned | 69.2 (135) |
Rented | 30.8 (60) |
Housing Type (%, n) | |
Formal housing | 56.6 (111) |
Flat | 10.2 (20) |
Backyard dwelling | 9.2 (18) |
Informal house (shack) | 20.9 (41) |
Others | 3.1 (6) |
Source of Drinking Water | |
Municipal potable water—indoor tap | 67.0 (132) |
Municipal potable water—outdoor communal tap | 33.0 (65) |
Other (borehole and river) | 0.0 |
Fuel Used for Cooking (%, n) | |
Electricity | 97.5 (192) |
Paraffin | 1.5 (3) |
Gas/wood | 1.0 (2) |
Fuel Used for Heating (%, n) | |
Electricity | 41.5 (71) |
Paraffin | 29.8 (51) |
Gas/wood/coal | 4.1 (7) |
None | 24.6 (42) |
Prescribed Vitamin Supplements during Pregnancy | 93.2 (164) |
Ate Bread before Pregnancy (%, n) | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 3.8 (7) |
Almost everyday | 96.2 (179) |
Ate Bread during Pregnancy (%, n) | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 3.2 (6) |
Almost everyday | 96.8 (179) |
Root Vegetable before Pregnancy (%, n) | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 10.0 (19) |
Almost everyday | 90.0 (172) |
Root Vegetable during Pregnancy (%, n) | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 8.0 (16) |
Almost everyday | 92.0 (184) |
Ate Fruit before Pregnancy | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 7.9 (15) |
Almost everyday | 92.2 (176) |
Ate Fruit during Pregnancy | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 6.3 (9) |
Almost everyday | 93.7 (179) |
Bottled Water before Pregnancy | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 56.5 (48) |
Almost everyday | 43.5 (37) |
Bottled Water during Pregnancy | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 56.1 (46) |
Almost everyday | 43.9 (36) |
Characteristic | Total (N = 200) | Range |
---|---|---|
Maternal age (y) [mean, (SD)] | 26.1 (6.3) | 15–43 |
Maternal weight (kg) [mean, (SD)] | 76.5 (19.7) | 40–143 |
Maternal height (cm) [mean, (SD)] | 156.9 (11.4) | 138–183 |
Maternal haemoglobin (g/dL) [mean, (SD)] | 11.04 (1.76) | 6-15 (n = 87) |
Maternal blood pressure at admission (mm Hg): | ||
BP systolic | 122.6 (16.9) | 100–160 |
BP diastolic | 75.8 (12.3) | 41–110 |
Gestational age (weeks) [mean, (SD)] | 38.7 (2.9) | 24–44 |
Birth weight (g) [mean, (SD)] | 3080.9 (576.6) | 855–4320 |
Birth length (cm) [mean, (SD)] | 50.0 (4.3) | 31–66 |
Head circumference (cm) [mean, (SD)] | 34.6 (2.6) | 27–50 |
Placenta weight (g) | 617.4 (153.9) | 320–1370 |
Apgar score 1 min [mean, (SD)] | 8.1 (1.5) | 2–10 |
Apgar score 5 min [mean, (SD)] | 9.4 (0.9) | 2–10 |
Sex (% male) | 58.1 | |
Parity (%, n) | ||
0 | 40.2 (76) | |
1+ | 59.8 (113) |
Pre-Term (24–36 Weeks) | Term (37–44 Weeks) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Birth Outcome | β | p-Value | β | p-Value |
Birth weight | 0.063 | 0.7912 | −0.015 | 0.877 |
Birth length | 0.143 | 0.547 | 0.039 | 0.682 |
Head circumference | 0.154 | 0.517 | −0.161 | 0.087 |
Gestational age | 0.019 | 0.938 | −0.188 | 0.044 * |
Parity | 0.156 | 0.512 | 0.194 | 0.038 * |
Element | N | Mean (SD) | Range | GM | 95% Conf. Interval | Median | 95% Conf. Interval |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al serum (µg/L) | 191 | 25.5 (23.1) | 0.18–60 | 17.5 | 14.8;20.4 | 29.2 | 16.2;34.0 |
Selected essential elements | |||||||
Cu serum (µg/L) | 192 | 2451 (51.1) | 1157–4281 | 2401 | 2332;2472 | 2391.5 | 2315.7;2462.2 |
Zn serum (µg/L) | 191 | 466.3 (120.6) | 227.5–11295 | 452.6 | 449.05;486.48 | 445.3 | 435.3;473.0 |
Se serum (µg/L) | 191 | 76.9 (28.7) | 36.7–328.2 | 73.7 | 70.9;76.6 | 75.3 | 70.9;78.3 |
Mn blood (µg/L) | 195 | 14.5 (4.9) | 2.4–28.9 | 13.5 | 12.8;14.3 | 14.5 | 13.5;15.1 |
Selected neurotoxic elements | |||||||
Pb blood (µg/L) | 195 | 12.7 (11.3) | 5–62 | 9.5 | 8.6;10.5 | 10.0 | 5.0;11.0 |
Hg blood (µg/L) | 191 | 1.5 (1.1) | 0.3–6 | 1.1 | 0.9;1.2 | 1.2 | 1.1;1.5 |
As blood (µg/L) | 195 | 0.5 (0.4) | 0.1–3.3 | 0.4 | 0.3;0.4 | 0.4 | 0.4;0.5 |
Elements | Total Cohort Rho (p-Value) | Male Rho (p-Value) | Female Rho (p-Value) |
---|---|---|---|
Selected essential elements | |||
Cu serum | 0.285 (<0.001) * | 0.360 (<0.001) * | 0.152 (0.196) |
Zn serum | 0.435 (<0.001) * | 0.447 (0.001) * | 0.402 (<0.001) * |
Se serum | 0.195 (0.008) * | 0.271 (0.006) * | 0.070 (0.555) |
Mn blood | 0.043 (0.561) | 0.023 (0.819) | 0.098 (0.405) |
Selected neurotoxic elements | |||
Pb blood | 0.361 (<0.001) * | 0.285 (0.004) * | 0.444 (<0.001) * |
Hg blood | −0.011 (0.881) | −0.001 (0.995) | −0.065 (0.586) |
As blood | 0.057 (0.444) | 0.176 (0.075) | −0.118 (0.319) |
Univariate | Multi-Variable | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Characteristic | Coefficient | p-Value | 95% Conf.Int | Coefficient | p-Value | 95% Conf.Int |
Head circumference | –1.935 | 0.077 | −4.078 to 0.208 | - | - | - |
Apgar score 1 min | 4.173 | 0.022 | 0.604 to 7.741 | - | - | - |
Apgar score 5 min | 4.282 | 0.163 | −1.749 to 10.313 | - | - | - |
Placenta weight | 0.006 | 0.752 | −0.032 to 0.044 | - | - | - |
Birth weight | 0.002 | 0.683 | −0.007 to 0.011 | - | - | - |
Birth length | 0.530 | 0.439 | −0.820 to 1.880 | - | - | - |
Parity | 5.708 | 0.005 | 1.770 to 9.645 | - | - | - |
Ate fruit before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −12.600 | 0.068 | −26.143 to 0.943 | |||
Ate fruit during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −18.450 | 0.022 | −34.252 to 2.648 | |||
Bottled water before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 12.775 | 0.106 | −2.771 to 28.321 | |||
Bottled water during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 15.560 | 0.060 | −0.676 to 31.796 | |||
Root vegetable before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −10.310 | 0.297 | −29.755 to 9.135 | |||
Root vegetable during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −14.130 | 0.187 | −35.168 to 9.908 | |||
Ate bread before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 9.770 | 0.553 | −22.631 to 42.171 | |||
Ate bread during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 11.305 | 0.530 | −24.116 to 46.726 | |||
Cu serum | 0.014 | 0.009 | 0.004 to 0.025 | 0.008 | 0.044 | 0.0002 to 0.016 |
Zn serum | 0.090 | <0.001 | 0.058 to 0.123 | 0.070 | <0.001 | 0.037 to 0.102 |
Se serum | 0.149 | 0.120 | −0.039 to 0.337 | |||
Mn blood | 0.598 | 0.307 | −0.553 to 1.748 | |||
Pb blood | 0.680 | 0.002 | 0.258 to 1.103 | 0.437 | 0.014 | 0.090 to 0.783 |
Hg blood | 3.503 | 0.180 | −1.638 to 8.645 | |||
As blood | 6.967 | 0.281 | −5.754 to 19.687 |
Univariate | Multi-Variable | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Characteristic | Coefficient | p-Value | 95% Conf.Int | Coefficient | p-Value | 95% Conf.Int |
Head circumference | −2.110 | 0.086 | −4.531 to 0.306 | - | - | - |
Apgar score 1 min | 4.540 | 0.032 | 0.392 to 8.688 | - | - | - |
Apgar score 5 min | 6.880 | 0.058 | −0.230 to 13.993 | - | - | - |
Placenta weight | −0.052 | 0.044 | −0.103 to -0.001 | - | - | - |
Birth weight | −0.004 | 0.547 | −0.018 to 0.010 | - | - | - |
Birth length | 0.816 | 0.333 | −0.850 to 2.481 | - | - | - |
Parity | 5.409 | 0.044 | 0.159 to 10.658 | - | - | - |
Ate fruit before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −7.940 | 0.442 | −28.364 to 12.484 | |||
Ate fruit during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −17.085 | 0.295 | −49.306 to 15.136 | |||
Bottled water before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 15.370 | 0.099 | −3.036 to 33.776 | |||
Bottled water during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 7.780 | 0.048 | 0.088 to 15.472 | |||
Root vegetable before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −12.895 | 0.253 | −35.129 to 9.339 | |||
Root vegetable during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −14.275 | 0.255 | −39.026 to 10.476 | |||
Ate bread before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | - | |||||
Ate bread during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 11.184 | 0.610 | −32.182 to 54.550 | |||
Cu serum | 0.022 | 0.001 | 0.009 to 0.034 | |||
Zn serum | 0.089 | <0.001 | 0.048 to 0.129 | 0.089 | <0.001 | 0.048 to 0.129 |
Se serum | 0.141 | 0.185 | −0.068 to 0.350 | |||
Mn blood | 0.531 | 0.436 | −0.817 to 1.879 | |||
Pb blood | 0.460 | 0.108 | −0.103 to 1.023 | |||
Hg blood | 3.429 | 0.270 | −2.698 to 9.555 | |||
As blood | 11.42 | 0.102 | −2.298 to 25.138 |
Univariate | Multi-Variable | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Characteristic | Coefficient | p-Value | 95% Conf.Int | Coefficient | p-Value | 95% Conf.Int |
Head circumference | −3.350 | 0.123 | −7.627 to 0.927 | - | - | - |
Apgar score 1 min | 0.990 | 0.713 | −4.352 to 6.332 | - | - | - |
Apgar score 5 min | −1.451 | 0.697 | −8.843 to 5.940 | - | - | - |
Placenta weight | 0.033 | 0.218 | −0.200 to 0.085 | - | - | - |
Birth weight | −0.004 | 0.573 | −0.180 to 0.010 | - | - | - |
Birth length | 0.626 | 0.549 | −1.448 to 2.700 | - | - | - |
Parity | 8.097 | 0.012 | 1.827 to 14.367 | - | - | - |
Ate fruit before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −10.430 | 0.245 | −28.158 to 7.298 | |||
Ate fruit during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −18.450 | 0.048 | −36.725 to −0.175 | |||
Bottled water before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 0.700 | 0.945 | −19.810 to 21.210 | |||
Bottled water during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −0.670 | 0.907 | −12.248 to 10.908 | |||
Root vegetable before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 0.490 | 0.976 | −32.397 to 31.417 | |||
Root vegetable during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −12.720 | 0.478 | −48.235 to 22.795 | |||
Ate bread before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | - | |||||
Ate bread during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 16.800 | 0.525 | −35.591 to 69.191 | |||
Cu serum | 0.011 | 0.173 | −0.005 to 0.028 | |||
Zn serum | 0.092 | 0.002 | 0.0035 to 0.149 | 0.072 | 0.017 | 0.013 to 0.131 |
Se serum | 0.118 | 0.389 | −0.153 to 0.388 | |||
Mn blood | 0.807 | 0.374 | −0.989 to 2.602 | |||
Pb blood | 0.970 | 0.005 | 0.310 to 1.631 | 0.632 | 0.048 | 0.004 to 1.259 |
Hg blood | 1.406 | 0.679 | −5.338 to 8.151 | |||
As blood | −16.747 | 0.181 | −41.452 to 7.957 |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Röllin, H.B.; Channa, K.; Olutola, B.; Nogueira, C.; Odland, J.Ø. In Utero Exposure to Aluminium and Other Neurotoxic Elements in Urban Coastal South African Women at Delivery: An Emerging Concern. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1724. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051724
Röllin HB, Channa K, Olutola B, Nogueira C, Odland JØ. In Utero Exposure to Aluminium and Other Neurotoxic Elements in Urban Coastal South African Women at Delivery: An Emerging Concern. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(5):1724. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051724
Chicago/Turabian StyleRöllin, Halina B., Kalavati Channa, Bukola Olutola, Claudina Nogueira, and Jon Ø. Odland. 2020. "In Utero Exposure to Aluminium and Other Neurotoxic Elements in Urban Coastal South African Women at Delivery: An Emerging Concern" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 5: 1724. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051724
APA StyleRöllin, H. B., Channa, K., Olutola, B., Nogueira, C., & Odland, J. Ø. (2020). In Utero Exposure to Aluminium and Other Neurotoxic Elements in Urban Coastal South African Women at Delivery: An Emerging Concern. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(5), 1724. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051724