In Utero Exposure to Aluminium and Other Neurotoxic Elements in Urban Coastal South African Women at Delivery: An Emerging Concern
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Sample Collection and Analytical Procedures
2.3. Covariates
2.4. Statistical Analysis
2.5. Ethical Considerations
3. Results
3.1. Participant Characteristics
3.2. Obstetric and Birth Outcomes
3.3. Association between Exposure to Al, Maternal Covariates and Infant Anthropometry Measures at Birth
3.4. Concentration of Al, Selected Essential Elements and Neurotoxic Metals
3.5. Prenatal Sex-Specific Spearman’s Association between Maternal Serum Al and Essential and Neurotoxic Elements
3.6. Univariate and Multi-Variable Regression Analyses
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristic | Total (N = 200) |
---|---|
Age (Years) [mean, (standard deviation, SD)] | 26.1 (6.3) |
Marital Status (%, n) | |
Married | 37.1 (73) |
Single/divorced/widowed | 42.1 (83) |
Co-habiting | 20.8 (41) |
Education (%, n) | |
None/Primary | 1.0 (2) |
Secondary | 90 (180) |
Tertiary | 7.5 (15) |
Race/Ethnicity (%, n) | |
African/Black | 59.6 (115) |
Others | 40.4 (78) |
Percentage Unemployed (%, n) | 62.2 (122) |
Ownership of Home (%, n) | |
Owned | 69.2 (135) |
Rented | 30.8 (60) |
Housing Type (%, n) | |
Formal housing | 56.6 (111) |
Flat | 10.2 (20) |
Backyard dwelling | 9.2 (18) |
Informal house (shack) | 20.9 (41) |
Others | 3.1 (6) |
Source of Drinking Water | |
Municipal potable water—indoor tap | 67.0 (132) |
Municipal potable water—outdoor communal tap | 33.0 (65) |
Other (borehole and river) | 0.0 |
Fuel Used for Cooking (%, n) | |
Electricity | 97.5 (192) |
Paraffin | 1.5 (3) |
Gas/wood | 1.0 (2) |
Fuel Used for Heating (%, n) | |
Electricity | 41.5 (71) |
Paraffin | 29.8 (51) |
Gas/wood/coal | 4.1 (7) |
None | 24.6 (42) |
Prescribed Vitamin Supplements during Pregnancy | 93.2 (164) |
Ate Bread before Pregnancy (%, n) | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 3.8 (7) |
Almost everyday | 96.2 (179) |
Ate Bread during Pregnancy (%, n) | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 3.2 (6) |
Almost everyday | 96.8 (179) |
Root Vegetable before Pregnancy (%, n) | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 10.0 (19) |
Almost everyday | 90.0 (172) |
Root Vegetable during Pregnancy (%, n) | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 8.0 (16) |
Almost everyday | 92.0 (184) |
Ate Fruit before Pregnancy | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 7.9 (15) |
Almost everyday | 92.2 (176) |
Ate Fruit during Pregnancy | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 6.3 (9) |
Almost everyday | 93.7 (179) |
Bottled Water before Pregnancy | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 56.5 (48) |
Almost everyday | 43.5 (37) |
Bottled Water during Pregnancy | |
Seldom/at least once a week | 56.1 (46) |
Almost everyday | 43.9 (36) |
Characteristic | Total (N = 200) | Range |
---|---|---|
Maternal age (y) [mean, (SD)] | 26.1 (6.3) | 15–43 |
Maternal weight (kg) [mean, (SD)] | 76.5 (19.7) | 40–143 |
Maternal height (cm) [mean, (SD)] | 156.9 (11.4) | 138–183 |
Maternal haemoglobin (g/dL) [mean, (SD)] | 11.04 (1.76) | 6-15 (n = 87) |
Maternal blood pressure at admission (mm Hg): | ||
BP systolic | 122.6 (16.9) | 100–160 |
BP diastolic | 75.8 (12.3) | 41–110 |
Gestational age (weeks) [mean, (SD)] | 38.7 (2.9) | 24–44 |
Birth weight (g) [mean, (SD)] | 3080.9 (576.6) | 855–4320 |
Birth length (cm) [mean, (SD)] | 50.0 (4.3) | 31–66 |
Head circumference (cm) [mean, (SD)] | 34.6 (2.6) | 27–50 |
Placenta weight (g) | 617.4 (153.9) | 320–1370 |
Apgar score 1 min [mean, (SD)] | 8.1 (1.5) | 2–10 |
Apgar score 5 min [mean, (SD)] | 9.4 (0.9) | 2–10 |
Sex (% male) | 58.1 | |
Parity (%, n) | ||
0 | 40.2 (76) | |
1+ | 59.8 (113) |
Pre-Term (24–36 Weeks) | Term (37–44 Weeks) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Birth Outcome | β | p-Value | β | p-Value |
Birth weight | 0.063 | 0.7912 | −0.015 | 0.877 |
Birth length | 0.143 | 0.547 | 0.039 | 0.682 |
Head circumference | 0.154 | 0.517 | −0.161 | 0.087 |
Gestational age | 0.019 | 0.938 | −0.188 | 0.044 * |
Parity | 0.156 | 0.512 | 0.194 | 0.038 * |
Element | N | Mean (SD) | Range | GM | 95% Conf. Interval | Median | 95% Conf. Interval |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al serum (µg/L) | 191 | 25.5 (23.1) | 0.18–60 | 17.5 | 14.8;20.4 | 29.2 | 16.2;34.0 |
Selected essential elements | |||||||
Cu serum (µg/L) | 192 | 2451 (51.1) | 1157–4281 | 2401 | 2332;2472 | 2391.5 | 2315.7;2462.2 |
Zn serum (µg/L) | 191 | 466.3 (120.6) | 227.5–11295 | 452.6 | 449.05;486.48 | 445.3 | 435.3;473.0 |
Se serum (µg/L) | 191 | 76.9 (28.7) | 36.7–328.2 | 73.7 | 70.9;76.6 | 75.3 | 70.9;78.3 |
Mn blood (µg/L) | 195 | 14.5 (4.9) | 2.4–28.9 | 13.5 | 12.8;14.3 | 14.5 | 13.5;15.1 |
Selected neurotoxic elements | |||||||
Pb blood (µg/L) | 195 | 12.7 (11.3) | 5–62 | 9.5 | 8.6;10.5 | 10.0 | 5.0;11.0 |
Hg blood (µg/L) | 191 | 1.5 (1.1) | 0.3–6 | 1.1 | 0.9;1.2 | 1.2 | 1.1;1.5 |
As blood (µg/L) | 195 | 0.5 (0.4) | 0.1–3.3 | 0.4 | 0.3;0.4 | 0.4 | 0.4;0.5 |
Elements | Total Cohort Rho (p-Value) | Male Rho (p-Value) | Female Rho (p-Value) |
---|---|---|---|
Selected essential elements | |||
Cu serum | 0.285 (<0.001) * | 0.360 (<0.001) * | 0.152 (0.196) |
Zn serum | 0.435 (<0.001) * | 0.447 (0.001) * | 0.402 (<0.001) * |
Se serum | 0.195 (0.008) * | 0.271 (0.006) * | 0.070 (0.555) |
Mn blood | 0.043 (0.561) | 0.023 (0.819) | 0.098 (0.405) |
Selected neurotoxic elements | |||
Pb blood | 0.361 (<0.001) * | 0.285 (0.004) * | 0.444 (<0.001) * |
Hg blood | −0.011 (0.881) | −0.001 (0.995) | −0.065 (0.586) |
As blood | 0.057 (0.444) | 0.176 (0.075) | −0.118 (0.319) |
Univariate | Multi-Variable | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Characteristic | Coefficient | p-Value | 95% Conf.Int | Coefficient | p-Value | 95% Conf.Int |
Head circumference | –1.935 | 0.077 | −4.078 to 0.208 | - | - | - |
Apgar score 1 min | 4.173 | 0.022 | 0.604 to 7.741 | - | - | - |
Apgar score 5 min | 4.282 | 0.163 | −1.749 to 10.313 | - | - | - |
Placenta weight | 0.006 | 0.752 | −0.032 to 0.044 | - | - | - |
Birth weight | 0.002 | 0.683 | −0.007 to 0.011 | - | - | - |
Birth length | 0.530 | 0.439 | −0.820 to 1.880 | - | - | - |
Parity | 5.708 | 0.005 | 1.770 to 9.645 | - | - | - |
Ate fruit before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −12.600 | 0.068 | −26.143 to 0.943 | |||
Ate fruit during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −18.450 | 0.022 | −34.252 to 2.648 | |||
Bottled water before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 12.775 | 0.106 | −2.771 to 28.321 | |||
Bottled water during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 15.560 | 0.060 | −0.676 to 31.796 | |||
Root vegetable before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −10.310 | 0.297 | −29.755 to 9.135 | |||
Root vegetable during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −14.130 | 0.187 | −35.168 to 9.908 | |||
Ate bread before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 9.770 | 0.553 | −22.631 to 42.171 | |||
Ate bread during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 11.305 | 0.530 | −24.116 to 46.726 | |||
Cu serum | 0.014 | 0.009 | 0.004 to 0.025 | 0.008 | 0.044 | 0.0002 to 0.016 |
Zn serum | 0.090 | <0.001 | 0.058 to 0.123 | 0.070 | <0.001 | 0.037 to 0.102 |
Se serum | 0.149 | 0.120 | −0.039 to 0.337 | |||
Mn blood | 0.598 | 0.307 | −0.553 to 1.748 | |||
Pb blood | 0.680 | 0.002 | 0.258 to 1.103 | 0.437 | 0.014 | 0.090 to 0.783 |
Hg blood | 3.503 | 0.180 | −1.638 to 8.645 | |||
As blood | 6.967 | 0.281 | −5.754 to 19.687 |
Univariate | Multi-Variable | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Characteristic | Coefficient | p-Value | 95% Conf.Int | Coefficient | p-Value | 95% Conf.Int |
Head circumference | −2.110 | 0.086 | −4.531 to 0.306 | - | - | - |
Apgar score 1 min | 4.540 | 0.032 | 0.392 to 8.688 | - | - | - |
Apgar score 5 min | 6.880 | 0.058 | −0.230 to 13.993 | - | - | - |
Placenta weight | −0.052 | 0.044 | −0.103 to -0.001 | - | - | - |
Birth weight | −0.004 | 0.547 | −0.018 to 0.010 | - | - | - |
Birth length | 0.816 | 0.333 | −0.850 to 2.481 | - | - | - |
Parity | 5.409 | 0.044 | 0.159 to 10.658 | - | - | - |
Ate fruit before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −7.940 | 0.442 | −28.364 to 12.484 | |||
Ate fruit during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −17.085 | 0.295 | −49.306 to 15.136 | |||
Bottled water before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 15.370 | 0.099 | −3.036 to 33.776 | |||
Bottled water during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 7.780 | 0.048 | 0.088 to 15.472 | |||
Root vegetable before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −12.895 | 0.253 | −35.129 to 9.339 | |||
Root vegetable during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −14.275 | 0.255 | −39.026 to 10.476 | |||
Ate bread before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | - | |||||
Ate bread during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 11.184 | 0.610 | −32.182 to 54.550 | |||
Cu serum | 0.022 | 0.001 | 0.009 to 0.034 | |||
Zn serum | 0.089 | <0.001 | 0.048 to 0.129 | 0.089 | <0.001 | 0.048 to 0.129 |
Se serum | 0.141 | 0.185 | −0.068 to 0.350 | |||
Mn blood | 0.531 | 0.436 | −0.817 to 1.879 | |||
Pb blood | 0.460 | 0.108 | −0.103 to 1.023 | |||
Hg blood | 3.429 | 0.270 | −2.698 to 9.555 | |||
As blood | 11.42 | 0.102 | −2.298 to 25.138 |
Univariate | Multi-Variable | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Characteristic | Coefficient | p-Value | 95% Conf.Int | Coefficient | p-Value | 95% Conf.Int |
Head circumference | −3.350 | 0.123 | −7.627 to 0.927 | - | - | - |
Apgar score 1 min | 0.990 | 0.713 | −4.352 to 6.332 | - | - | - |
Apgar score 5 min | −1.451 | 0.697 | −8.843 to 5.940 | - | - | - |
Placenta weight | 0.033 | 0.218 | −0.200 to 0.085 | - | - | - |
Birth weight | −0.004 | 0.573 | −0.180 to 0.010 | - | - | - |
Birth length | 0.626 | 0.549 | −1.448 to 2.700 | - | - | - |
Parity | 8.097 | 0.012 | 1.827 to 14.367 | - | - | - |
Ate fruit before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −10.430 | 0.245 | −28.158 to 7.298 | |||
Ate fruit during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −18.450 | 0.048 | −36.725 to −0.175 | |||
Bottled water before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 0.700 | 0.945 | −19.810 to 21.210 | |||
Bottled water during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −0.670 | 0.907 | −12.248 to 10.908 | |||
Root vegetable before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 0.490 | 0.976 | −32.397 to 31.417 | |||
Root vegetable during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | −12.720 | 0.478 | −48.235 to 22.795 | |||
Ate bread before pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | - | |||||
Ate bread during pregnancy | ||||||
Seldom/at least once a week | Reference | |||||
Almost everyday | 16.800 | 0.525 | −35.591 to 69.191 | |||
Cu serum | 0.011 | 0.173 | −0.005 to 0.028 | |||
Zn serum | 0.092 | 0.002 | 0.0035 to 0.149 | 0.072 | 0.017 | 0.013 to 0.131 |
Se serum | 0.118 | 0.389 | −0.153 to 0.388 | |||
Mn blood | 0.807 | 0.374 | −0.989 to 2.602 | |||
Pb blood | 0.970 | 0.005 | 0.310 to 1.631 | 0.632 | 0.048 | 0.004 to 1.259 |
Hg blood | 1.406 | 0.679 | −5.338 to 8.151 | |||
As blood | −16.747 | 0.181 | −41.452 to 7.957 |
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Share and Cite
Röllin, H.B.; Channa, K.; Olutola, B.; Nogueira, C.; Odland, J.Ø. In Utero Exposure to Aluminium and Other Neurotoxic Elements in Urban Coastal South African Women at Delivery: An Emerging Concern. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1724. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051724
Röllin HB, Channa K, Olutola B, Nogueira C, Odland JØ. In Utero Exposure to Aluminium and Other Neurotoxic Elements in Urban Coastal South African Women at Delivery: An Emerging Concern. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(5):1724. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051724
Chicago/Turabian StyleRöllin, Halina B., Kalavati Channa, Bukola Olutola, Claudina Nogueira, and Jon Ø. Odland. 2020. "In Utero Exposure to Aluminium and Other Neurotoxic Elements in Urban Coastal South African Women at Delivery: An Emerging Concern" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 5: 1724. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051724