Residues and Dissipation of the Herbicide Imazapyr after Operational Use in Irrigation Water
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Imazapyr Application
- (1)
- In May 2015 (late autumn) canals with delta arrowhead infestations were dewatered at the start of the irrigation off-season.
- (2)
- Irrigation canals were then left dewatered for varying periods of time (median 24, min 1, max 60 days before herbicide application).
- (3)
- Imazapyr was then applied as a proprietary product (active ingredient (a.i.): 150 g ae L−1 imazapyr (isopropylamine salt) and 150 g ae L−1 glyphosate (isopropylamine salt)) at a rate of 750 g imazapyr a.i. ha−1 to the foliage of delta arrowhead and the sediment directly below it. This was applied at 5 L ha−1 of product with high volume handguns (600 L spray mix ha−1) according to herbicide product label instructions. Irrigation canals were treated individually from late May to early July 2015. The total length of canal in this application program was ~400 km.
- (4)
- Irrigation canals were then left dewatered for varying periods of time (median 30, min 8, max 55 days after application).
- (5)
- Irrigation canals were then recharged by filling canals pool by pool, from upstream to downstream (a pool is defined as a length of canal between two flow-regulating structures). Once recharged, pools were left ponded and imazapyr residues in the water were determined at intervals to verify dissipation. Near the end of the irrigation off-season pools with >1 µg L−1 imazapyr were flushed to displace imazapyr-contaminated water prior to resumption of supply of irrigation water.
2.2. Key Environmental Variables in the Region of Imazapyr Application
2.3. Imazapyr Residue Sampling Program and Analytical Method
2.4. Imazapyr Residue Data Collation
- Initial imazapyr concentration upon canal refilling (Model 1)
- Dissipation of imazapyr during the ponding period, after canal refilling (Model 2)
2.5. Statistical Analysis—Model 1, Initial Imazapyr Concentration
2.6. Statistical Analysis—Model 2, Dissipation of Imazapyr
3. Results
3.1. Model 1, Initial Imazapyr Concentration
3.2. Model 2, Dissipation of Imazapyr
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Soil Name | Proportion of Irrigation Area (%) | Australian Soil Classification (ASC) | World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) |
---|---|---|---|
Lemnos loam/Moira loam | 40 | Red Sodosol/Chromosol | Luvisol, Solonetz |
Moira loam/Goulburn loam | 25 | Brown Sodosols | Solonetz |
Goulburn Boosey loam | 10 | Grey Sodosol/Vertosol | Solonetx, Vertisol |
Term | Median | Min. | Max. | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pool characteristics | ||||
Irrigation district | 3 level factor | Murray Valley, Shepparton, and Central Goulburn | ||
Canal name | 9 level factor | Canals MVS1, SPS1, SPS2, SPS3, RNIS1, RNIS2, MVIS7, SPIS8, and RNIS9 | ||
Dead end spur indicator | 2 level factor | Yes or no, depending if canal was a dead-end spur | ||
Variables | ||||
Length of canal treated (excluding upstream; km) | 1.4 | 0.3 | 7.9 | |
Length of canal treated (including upstream; km) | 5.5 | 0.7 | 13.4 | |
Amount of imazapyr applied (excluding upstream; g km−1) | 331 | 23 | 2612 | |
Amount of imazapyr applied (including upstream; g km−1) | 440 | 129 | 2612 | |
Initial concentration (µg L−1) | 17 | 1 | 53 | |
Days after spraying until recharge (dewatered period) | 30 | 8 | 55 | |
Number of days between start and end of application (excluding upstream) | 1 | 0 | 40 | |
Number of days between start and end of application (including upstream) | 7 | 1 | 40 | |
Days drawdown period after application | 30 | 8 | 55 | |
Total imazapyr (g a.i.) applied excluding upstream | 548 | 14 | 5060 | |
Total imazapyr (g a.i.) applied including upstream | 1952 | 253 | 9688 | |
Volume (ML) to recharge pool excluding upstream | 6.4 | 1.5 | 67.4 | |
Days drawdown before application | 24 | 1 | 60 | |
Days with rainfall before application including upstream | 7 | 0 | 20 | |
Days with rainfall during application including upstream | 0 | 0 | 6 | |
Days with rainfall during drawdown after application | 8 | 0 | 11 | |
Days with rainfall during drawdown before application excluding upstream | 8 | 0 | 11 | |
Days with rainfall during drawdown and during application excluding upstream | 0 | 0 | 6 | |
Days with rainfall during drawdown after application including upstream | 0 | 0 | 6 | |
Rainfall (mm) during drawdown after application excluding upstream | 38 | 1 | 61 | |
Rainfall (mm) during drawdown before application excluding upstream | 15 | 0 | 56 | |
Rainfall (mm) during drawdown and during application excluding upstream | 0 | 0 | 37 | |
Rainfall (mm) during drawdown after application including upstream | 38 | 1 | 61 | |
Rainfall (mm) during drawdown before application including upstream | 15 | 0 | 56 | |
Rainfall (mm) during drawdown and during application including upstream | 0 | 0 | 37 | |
Solar exposure (MJ m−2) during drawdown after application excluding upstream | 8.1 | 7.4 | 8.6 | |
Solar exposure (MJ m−2) during drawdown before application excluding upstream | 8.5 | 7.8 | 11.1 | |
Solar exposure (MJ m−2) during drawdown and during application excluding upstream | 7.8 | 4.5 | 9.7 | |
Solar exposure (MJ m−2) during drawdown after application including upstream | 8.1 | 7.4 | 8.6 | |
Solar exposure (MJ m−2) during drawdown before application including upstream | 8.5 | 7.8 | 11.1 | |
Solar exposure (MJ m−2) during drawdown and during application including upstream | 7.8 | 4.5 | 9.7 | |
Air temperature (℃) during drawdown after application excluding upstream | 12.9 | 12.3 | 15.0 | |
Air temperature (℃) during drawdown before application excluding upstream | 15.2 | 14.4 | 21.1 | |
Air temperature (℃) during drawdown and during application excluding upstream | 13.9 | 11.8 | 20.4 | |
Air temperature (℃) during drawdown after application including upstream | 12.9 | 12.3 | 15.0 | |
Air temperature (℃) during drawdown before application including upstream | 15.2 | 14.4 | 21.1 | |
Air temperature (℃) during drawdown and during application including upstream | 13.9 | 11.8 | 21.1 | |
Recharge to first sample (days) during ponding excluding upstream | 8 | 1 | 44 | |
Recharge to first sample (days) during ponding including upstream | 8 | 1 | 44 | |
Solar exposure (MJ m−2) during recharge excluding upstream | 8.2 | 6.8 | 9.2 | |
Solar exposure (MJ m−2) during recharge including upstream | 8.2 | 6.8 | 9.2 | |
Recharge start date | 29 July | 3 July | 5 August | Included as number of days since start of year |
Herbicide application end date | 30 June | 20 May | 20 July | |
Herbicide application start date | 10 June | 19 May | 10 July |
Term | Median | Min. | Max. | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pool characteristics | ||||
Irrigation district | 3 level factor | Murray Valley, Shepparton, and Central Goulburn | ||
Canal name | 9 level factor | Canals MVS1, SPS1, RNIS1, RNIS2 and RNIS9 | ||
Dead end spur indicator | 2 level factor | Yes or no, depending if canal was a dead-end spur | ||
Variables | ||||
Concentration of initial sample (µg L−1) | 20.7 | 2.2 | 53.5 | |
Average solar exposure during observation period (AvSolar; MJ m−2) | 8.6 | 8 | 11.4 | |
Solar exposure (MJ m−2) in first 5 days following initial sample (or up to final sample if less than 5 days ponding period) | 8.2 | 7.9 | 11.4 | |
Days between initial and final sample | 9 | 3 | 28 | |
Date of initial sample (days after 1/7/15) | 35 | 12 | 55 | |
Date of final sample (days after 1/7/15) | 45 | 15 | 62 | |
Estimated water depth (cm) | 74 | 57 | 108 | |
Estimated sediment depth (cm) | 46 | 16 | 108 |
Average Solar Radiation (MJ m−2) | Half-Life during Dewatered Period (Days) | Half-Life during Ponding (Days) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate | LCL | UCL | Estimate | LCL | UCL | |
8 | 15.6 | 9.8 | 38.0 | No dissipation a | 9.7 | No dissipation a |
8.5 | 15.6 | 9.8 | 38.0 | 35.6 | 7.0 | No dissipation a |
9 | 15.6 | 9.8 | 38.0 | 10.6 | 5.1 | No dissipation a |
9.5 | 15.6 | 9.8 | 38.0 | 6.2 | 3.8 | 17.4 |
10 | 15.6 | 9.8 | 38.0 | 4.4 | 2.9 | 9.5 |
10.5 | 15.6 | 9.8 | 38.0 | 3.4 | 2.3 | 7.0 |
11 | 15.6 | 9.8 | 38.0 | 2.8 | 1.8 | 5.7 |
11.5 | 15.6 | 9.8 | 38.0 | 2.3 | 1.5 | 4.9 |
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Dugdale, T.M.; Butler, K.L.; Finlay, M.J.; Liu, Z.; Rees, D.B.; Clements, D. Residues and Dissipation of the Herbicide Imazapyr after Operational Use in Irrigation Water. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2421. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072421
Dugdale TM, Butler KL, Finlay MJ, Liu Z, Rees DB, Clements D. Residues and Dissipation of the Herbicide Imazapyr after Operational Use in Irrigation Water. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(7):2421. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072421
Chicago/Turabian StyleDugdale, Tony M., Kym L. Butler, Mark J. Finlay, Zhiqian Liu, David B. Rees, and Daniel Clements. 2020. "Residues and Dissipation of the Herbicide Imazapyr after Operational Use in Irrigation Water" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 7: 2421. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072421
APA StyleDugdale, T. M., Butler, K. L., Finlay, M. J., Liu, Z., Rees, D. B., & Clements, D. (2020). Residues and Dissipation of the Herbicide Imazapyr after Operational Use in Irrigation Water. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(7), 2421. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072421