The Relationship between Economic Growth and Air Pollution—A Regional Comparison between China and South Korea
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background
3. Methods
3.1. Model Specification
3.2. Data Description
3.3. Robustness Tests
4. Results
5. Policy Implications
6. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Panel A | Panel B | |
---|---|---|
Pesaran CD | 39.773 *** | 23.724 *** |
p-value | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Number of observations | 286 | 228 |
Panel A | Panel B | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Level | First differences | Level | First differences | |
EMISSION | 2.930 | 5.003 *** | 1.114 | 4.558 *** |
GRP | 2.488 | 9.015 *** | 1.649 | 8.570 *** |
GRP2 | 2.090 | 4.002 *** | 7.173 | 24.447 *** |
EMP | 1.269 | 1.705 *** | 5.192 | 5.260 *** |
EC | 0.930 | 2.347 *** | 1.028 | 2.792 *** |
IS | 3.924 | 8.580 *** | 4.641 | 9.025 *** |
POP | 2.314 | 3.259 *** | 2.737 | 16.704 *** |
Statistic | p-Value | |
---|---|---|
Panel A. | ||
Equation of GRP per capita | 0.063 *** | 0.000 |
Equation of per capita Emission | 0.236 *** | 0.000 |
Panel B. | ||
Equation of GRP per capita | 1.115 *** | 0.000 |
Equation of per capita Emission | 0.664 *** | 0.000 |
U-Value | Z-Statistics | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
Korea | |||
GRP | 193,144 | −6.4637 *** | <0.00001 |
Emission | 175,605 | −8.6696 *** | <0.00001 |
China | |||
GRP | 220,681 | 15.0719 *** | <0.00001 |
Emission | 972,885 | 16.6324 *** | <0.00001 |
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Patterns | Authors | Dependent Variables | Independent Variables |
---|---|---|---|
Monotonic rising curve | Holtz-Eakin and Selden [5], Dasgupta et al. [6], Ang [7], Halicioglu [8], Chandran and Tang [9], Al-Mulali, et al. [10] | Annual emissions of | Gross Regional Product (GRP) per capita and square, Energy Consumption, Output, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), Transport energy consumption, Labor Force, Exports and Imports |
Inverted U-shaped | Grossman and Krueger [1], Panayotou [2] | Annual emissions of , , suspended particulate matter | GRP per capita and square, Population density, Industry Shares in GRP, Trade Intensity |
U-shaped | Moomaw and Unruh [11], Kaufmann et al. [12], Dinda et al. [4], Ozcan [13], Chandran and Tang [9], Wang et al. [14] | Annual emissions of , , suspended particulate matter | GRP per capita, Population growth, Spatial intensity of economic activity, Energy consumption, FDI, Transport energy consumption |
N-shaped | Grossman and Krueger [1], Aslanidis and Xepapadeas [16], Babu and Datta [17] | Annual emissions of , , , Soil quality index, Water quality index, Air quality index | GRP per capita, GRP, GRP square, GRP cubic, Temperature, Import shares, Share of the tertiary industry, Environmental degradation index and Population |
China | Korea | |||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
East | Central | Southwest | Northwest | Northeast | Metropolitan | Non-Metro | Metropolitan | Non-Metro | ||||||||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |
GRP | 6182 | 0.801 | 3244 | 0.642 | 3944 | 0.951 | 2536 | 0.654 | 4551 | 0.657 | 10,356 | 0.586 | 3,851 | 0.712 | 19,020 | 0.632 | 17,779 | 1.236 |
EMISSION | 42 | 1.198 | 37 | 0.858 | 37 | 1.200 | 30 | 1.186 | 31 | 0.958 | 70 | 0.408 | 34 | 0.559 | 9 | 1.653 | 33 | 2.066 |
EMP | 54 | 0.855 | 33 | 0.623 | 19 | 0.741 | 24 | 0.797 | 30 | 0.619 | 134 | 0.867 | 31 | 1.459 | 367 | 0.239 | 314 | 0.563 |
IS | 36 | 8.466 | 42 | 9.875 | 37 | 14.470 | 41 | 9.697 | 40 | 13.088 | 48 | 7.398 | 49 | 11.939 | 8 | 1.098 | 13 | 1.300 |
EC | 1173 | 1.132 | 491 | 1.246 | 622 | 2.065 | 364 | 1.218 | 995 | 1.181 | 2083 | 0.673 | 592 | 1.028 | 2569 | 0.961 | 4829 | 1.262 |
POP | 54 | 0.606 | 42 | 0.593 | 10 | 1.009 | 28 | 0.696 | 16 | 0.719 | 39 | 1.312 | 28 | 1.476 | 77 | 1.029 | 10 | 0.967 |
China | Korea | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
East Model (1) | Central Model (2) | Northwest Model (3) | Southwest Model (4) | Northeast Model (5) | Metropolitan Model (6) | Non- Metropolitan Model (7) | Metropolitan Model (8) | Non- Metropolitan Model (9) | |
Equation of GRP per capita | |||||||||
Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | |
Intercept | 6.853 *** (15.28) | 2.886 *** (2.63) | 1.358 (0.81) | 5.762 *** (3.39) | 5.123 *** (5.06) | 6.224 *** (0.73) | 1.170 *** (0.89) | 6.285 *** (28.93) | 5.838 *** (16.81) |
EMP | 0.233 *** (7.55) | 0.0552 (111) | 0.062 (0.67) | 0.118 *** (1.22) | 0.179 *** (2.58) | 0.039 *** (0.73) | 0.485 *** (13.20) | 0.685 *** (16.66) | 0.372 *** (2.98) |
EC | 0.480 *** (33.19) | 0.2514 *** (10.57) | 0.222 *** (8.5) | 0.209 *** (7.33) | 0.229 *** (6.80) | 0.599 *** (16.16) | 0.377 *** (19.99) | 0.122 *** (7.27) | 0.218 *** (6.46) |
IS | −0.012 *** (-3.05) | −0.0021 (−0.43) | 0.005 (0.95) | 0.012 ** (2.53) | 0.004 (1.47) | −0.015 (-3.05) | 0.003 *** (1.43) | −0.011 (−1.02) | −0.001 (−0.04) |
EMISSION | 0.022 *** (0.34) | 0.5231 *** (4.05) | 0.669 ** (3.62) | 0.184 (0.93) | 0.2837 ** (2.57) | 0.083 *** (0.28) | 0.441 *** (3.54) | 0.103 *** (7.82) | 0.261 *** (4.99) |
Equation of Per capita emission | |||||||||
Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | Parameter (SE) | |
Intercept | −446.000 *** (−3.79) | 125.429 *** (3.02) | −203.22 ** (−2.2) | 285.475 *** (2.85) | 150.181 * (1.94) | 10.719 *** (0.61) | 15.356 *** (0.31) | 25.286 *** (4.50) | 24.014 *** (0.54) |
GRP | 84.002 *** (3.84) | −23.915 *** (−2.87) | 41.967 ** (2.27) | −57.604 *** (−2.81) | −27.563 * (−1.86) | 56.317 *** (0.63) | −0.941 *** (−0.11) | 1.371 *** (−4.61) | −2.336 *** (−0.65) |
−3.857 *** (−3.80) | 1.241 *** (2.96) | −2.051 ** (−2.23) | 2.976 *** (2.86) | 1.328 * (1.89) | −2.447 *** (−0.63) | 0.046 *** (0.14) | −0.068 *** (10.16) | 0.118 *** (0.77) | |
EC | −0.002 (−0.01) | 0.138 *** (3.46) | 0.171 ** (2.2) | 0.272 *** (3.35) | 0.174 *** (2.88) | −0.115 *** (−0.66) | 0.023 *** (0.64) | 0.785 *** (6.64) | 0.632 *** (12.29) |
IS | −0.006 (−0.610) | 0.013 *** (4.24) | 0.009 (0.7) | −0.0001 (−0.01) | −0.005 (−0.85) | 0.042 *** (0.81) | 0.060 *** (12.46) | 0.168 *** (1.96) | 0.442 *** (5.56) |
P | 0.577 ** (1.99) | -0.510 *** (−5.99) | −0.182 (−0.9) | 0.211 ** (1.80) | 0.594 *** (4.96) | −0.154 *** (−0.52) | −0.102 *** (−4.30) | −0.632 *** (10.25) | −0.026 (1.68) |
R-square | 0.7483 | 0.6680 | 0.5703 | 0.5842 | 0.5706 | 0.6844 | 0.5564 | 0.5139 | 0.7611 |
Number of Cross sections | 101 | 88 | 38 | 46 | 33 | 49 | 237 | 74 | 154 |
Time series length: 2006–2016 | |||||||||
Turning point ($) | 7882 | 2249 | 4080 | 2348 | 4725 | 14624 | 4050 | 20856 | 19682 |
Pattern | Inverted U shape | U shape | Inverted U shape | U shape | U shape | Inverted U shape | U shape | Inverted U shape | U shape |
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Jiang, M.; Kim, E.; Woo, Y. The Relationship between Economic Growth and Air Pollution—A Regional Comparison between China and South Korea. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2761. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082761
Jiang M, Kim E, Woo Y. The Relationship between Economic Growth and Air Pollution—A Regional Comparison between China and South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(8):2761. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082761
Chicago/Turabian StyleJiang, Min, Euijune Kim, and Youngjin Woo. 2020. "The Relationship between Economic Growth and Air Pollution—A Regional Comparison between China and South Korea" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 8: 2761. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082761