Examining Ethnic Exposure through the Perspective of the Neighborhood Effect Averaging Problem: A Case Study of Xining, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. From the Uncertain Geographic Context Problem (UGCoP) to the Neighborhood Effect Averaging Problem (NEAP)
2.2. Activity-Based Segregation and Exposure
3. Study Area, Data, and Methods
3.1. Study Area and Data
3.2. Measuring Residence-Based and Activity-Based Ethnic Exposure
3.3. Measuring the Extent of Neighborhood Effect Averaging
3.4. One-Limit Censored Tobit Model Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Analysis
4.2. Modeling Results
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Final Sample | Han Ethnic Group | Hui Ethnic Group | Sig. 1 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | |||
Total | 1065 | - | 850 | - | 215 | - | - | |
Gender | Female | 511 | 48.0% (49.4%) 2 | 415 | 48.8% | 96 | 44.7% | 0.27 |
Male | 554 | 52.0% (50.6%) | 435 | 51.2% | 119 | 55.3% | ||
Age 3 | <30 | 100 | 9.4% (9.9%) | 69 | 8.1% | 31 | 14.4% | 0.01 |
30–50 | 647 | 60.8% (64.2%) | 515 | 60.6% | 132 | 61.4% | ||
>50 | 318 | 29.9% (25.9%) | 266 | 31.3% | 52 | 24.2% | ||
Monthly Income 4 (CNY) | <2000 | 388 | 36.4% (40.6%) | 254 | 29.9% | 134 | 62.3% | 0.00 |
2000–5000 | 580 | 54.5% (50.3%) | 509 | 59.9% | 71 | 33.0% | ||
>5000 | 97 | 9.1% (9.1%) | 87 | 10.2% | 10 | 4.7% | ||
Hukou Status | Temporary migrants | 227 | 21.3% (26.5%) | 160 | 18.8% | 67 | 31.2% | 0.00 |
Local | 838 | 78.7% (73.6%) | 690 | 81.2% | 148 | 68.8% | ||
Education Attainment | Middle school or below | 391 | 36.7% (35.0%) | 237 | 27.9% | 154 | 71.6% | 0.00 |
High school | 407 | 38.2% (42.4%) | 360 | 42.4% | 47 | 21.9% | ||
College or above | 267 | 25.1% (22.7%) | 253 | 29.8% | 14 | 6.5% | ||
Employment Status | Full-time job | 490 | 46.0% (43.4%) | 438 | 51.5% | 52 | 24.2% | 0.00 |
Part-time job or other | 212 | 19.9% (21.0%) | 131 | 15.4% | 81 | 37.7% | ||
Unemployed | 210 | 19.7% (17.2%) | 187 | 22.0% | 23 | 10.7% | ||
Retired | 153 | 14.4% (18.5%) | 94 | 11.1% | 59 | 27.4% |
Quintile of Residence-Based Exposure | Residence-Based Exposures (Mean) | Activity-Based Exposures (Mean) | Differences between Average Activity-Based and Residence-Based Exposures | Sig. 1 (Paired t-Test) | Number of Respondents |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st | 0.182 | 0.229 | 0.047 2 | 0.000 | 246 |
2nd | 0.236 | 0.269 | 0.033 | 0.000 | 232 |
3rd | 0.297 | 0.292 | −0.005 | 0.108 | 229 |
4th | 0.417 | 0.350 | −0.067 | 0.000 | 188 |
5th | 0.561 | 0.459 | −0.102 | 0.000 | 193 |
Quintile of Residence-based Exposure | Mean | Standard Deviation | Number of Respondents |
---|---|---|---|
1st | 0.053 | 0.073 | 246 |
2nd | 0.045 | 0.057 | 232 |
3rd | 0.040 | 0.052 | 229 |
4th | 0.068 | 0.077 | 188 |
5th | 0.116 | 0.149 | 193 |
Sig. 1 | 0.000 |
Variables | Model 1 (Han Sample) | Model 2 (Hui Sample) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coefficient | t | P > |t| | Coefficient | t | P > |t| | |
Gender (Ref: Male) | ||||||
Female | −0.01 | −0.73 | 0.47 | −0.01 | −1.00 | 0.32 |
Age (Ref: >50) | ||||||
<30 | 0.00 | 0.17 | 0.87 | 0.00 | 0.28 | 0.78 |
30–50 | −0.01 | −0.45 | 0.66 | 0.01 | 1.52 | 0.13 |
Education (Ref: College or above) | ||||||
Middle school or below | −0.03 | −1.72 | 0.09 | 0.00 | −0.25 | 0.80 |
High school | −0.02 | −1.46 | 0.15 | 0.00 | −0.11 | 0.92 |
Hukou (Ref: Temporary migrants) | ||||||
Local | 0.02 1 | 2.10 | 0.04 | 0.00 | −0.69 | 0.49 |
Employment (Ref: Unemployed) | ||||||
Full-time job | −0.02 | −1.35 | 0.18 | −0.03 | −2.83 | 0.01 |
Part-time job or other | 0.02 | 1.02 | 0.31 | 0.00 | −0.22 | 0.83 |
Retired | −0.02 | −0.96 | 0.34 | −0.02 | −1.75 | 0.08 |
Income (Ref: >5000) | ||||||
<2000 | −0.01 | −0.42 | 0.68 | 0.01 | 0.33 | 0.74 |
2000–5000 | 0.00 | 0.17 | 0.87 | 0.01 | 0.92 | 0.36 |
Deviation index in each type of activity places | ||||||
Workplaces | 0.15 | 15.23 | 0.00 | 0.27 | 14.26 | 0.00 |
Relatives’ home | 0.19 | 6.58 | 0.00 | 0.24 | 3.28 | 0.00 |
Shops | 0.38 | 11.01 | 0.00 | 0.17 | 2.61 | 0.01 |
Restaurants | 0.07 | 2.09 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.36 | 0.72 |
Parks and green spaces | 0.22 | 8.05 | 0.00 | 0.35 | 4.10 | 0.00 |
Hospitals | 0.15 | 5.15 | 0.00 | 0.30 | 3.69 | 0.00 |
Religious sites | −0.19 | −0.50 | 0.61 | 0.38 | 3.89 | 0.00 |
(Constant) | 0.01 | 0.31 | 0.76 | 0.00 | −0.14 | 0.89 |
Activity Places | Average Activity Duration | Percentage of Participants | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Hui Residents | Han Residents | Hui Residents | Han Residents | |
min | min | % | % | |
Workplaces | 471 | 423 | 53.5 | 63.6 |
Relatives’ home | 62 | 46 | 16.7 | 16.2 |
Shops | 62 | 46 | 23.7 | 39.4 |
Restaurants | 12 | 36 | 7.9 | 21.5 |
Parks and green spaces | 26 | 50 | 11.2 | 26.4 |
Hospitals | 18 | 16 | 13.7 | 5.2 |
Religious sites | 52 | 1 | 16.7 | 1.3 |
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Tan, Y.; Kwan, M.-P.; Chen, Z. Examining Ethnic Exposure through the Perspective of the Neighborhood Effect Averaging Problem: A Case Study of Xining, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2872. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082872
Tan Y, Kwan M-P, Chen Z. Examining Ethnic Exposure through the Perspective of the Neighborhood Effect Averaging Problem: A Case Study of Xining, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(8):2872. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082872
Chicago/Turabian StyleTan, Yiming, Mei-Po Kwan, and Zifeng Chen. 2020. "Examining Ethnic Exposure through the Perspective of the Neighborhood Effect Averaging Problem: A Case Study of Xining, China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 8: 2872. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082872