Psychosocial Barriers of Public Transport Use and Social Exclusion among Older Adults: Empirical Evidence from Lahore, Pakistan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Background
2.1. Development of Hypotheses
2.1.1. The Effects of Attitude on the Intention to Use Public Transportation
2.1.2. The Effects of Perceived Norms on the Intention to use Public Transportation
2.1.3. The Effects of Personal Agency on the Intention to Use Public Transportation
2.1.4. The Effects of Public Transport Habits on Social Exclusion
2.1.5. The Effects of Neighborhood Social Constraints of Public Transportation on Social Exclusion
2.1.6. The Effects of Intention to Use Public Transportation on Social Exclusion
3. Methodology
3.1. Study Context and Data Collection
- i.
- Present within 800-m catchment area of green line Metrobus service, Lahore
- ii.
- Possess a greater proportion of older adults, i.e., the more significant aged population as compared to other neighborhoods
- iii.
- Variety of neighborhood and socioeconomic characteristics (high and low-income neighborhoods)
3.2. Measure Development
3.3. Data Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Sample Characteristics
4.2. Model Assessment and Hypotheses Testing
4.2.1. Assessment of the Measurement Model
4.2.2. Assessment of the Structural Model
5. Discussion
5.1. Implications
5.2. Limitations and Future Research
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Constructs and Items | Loadings | t-Value |
---|---|---|
(EA)—Experiential Attitude (α = 0.868; CR = 0.909; AVE = 0.714) | ||
Public transport travel is good | 0.819 | 16.558 |
Public transport travel is useful | 0.824 | 11.135 |
Public transport travel is responsible | 0.897 | 19.089 |
Public transport travel is sensible | 0.839 | 17.226 |
(IA)—Instrumental Attitude (α = 0.777; CR = 0.869; AVE = 0.688) | ||
Public transport travel reduces carbon dioxide and PM2.5 emissions | 0.850 | 14.86 |
Public transport travel alleviates energy shortage issues | 0.828 | 13.616 |
Public transport travel saves money | 0.810 | 13.508 |
(IN)—Injunctive Norms (α = 0.869; CR = 0.92; AVE = 0.793) | ||
My closest friends accept me to use public transport | 0.922 | 23.907 |
My family/partner accept me to use public transport | 0.899 | 20.957 |
My work colleagues accept me to use public transport | 0.848 | 15.94 |
(DN)—Descriptive Norms (α = 0.899; CR = 0.937; AVE = 0.831) | ||
My closest friends use public transport | 0.909 | 23.82 |
My family/partner use public transport | 0.921 | 25.304 |
My work colleagues use public transport | 0.905 | 21.062 |
(PBC)—Perceived Behavioral Control (α = 0.823; CR = 0.892; AVE = 0.734) | ||
Easy and understandable payment method | 0.849 | 11.931 |
Easy to obtain public transport services | 0.856 | 14.055 |
Overall, easy to use public transport services | 0.865 | 16.49 |
(SEF)—Self-Efficacy (α = 0.961; CR = 0.966; AVE = 0.683) | ||
Confidence to use public transport if you are feeling tired | 0.837 | 15.803 |
Confidence to use public transport if you are in a depressive mood | 0.839 | 9.46 |
Confidence to use public transport if you have lack of motivation | 0.831 | 10.957 |
Confidence to use public transport if you are in fatigue | 0.819 | 10.848 |
Confidence to use public transport if you have lack of energy | 0.817 | 10.965 |
Confidence to use public transport if you are not feeling very well | 0.834 | 9.634 |
Confidence to use public transport if you have lack of will power, stressed | 0.843 | 12.558 |
Confidence to use public transport if the weather is bad | 0.83 | 12.901 |
Confidence to use public transport if you have less time | 0.877 | 15.259 |
Confidence to use public transport if you have less money | 0.838 | 12.056 |
Confidence to use public transport if you have lack of social support | 0.834 | 11.178 |
Confidence to use public transport during early in the morning | 0.802 | 11.36 |
Confidence to use public transport during nighttime | 0.74 | 9.042 |
(PTH)—Public Transport Habits (α = 0.844; CR = 0.906; AVE = 0.762) | ||
Taking public transport has become part of my life | 0.879 | 14.744 |
It is hard to give up taking public transport | 0.907 | 20.865 |
I often spontaneously take public transport | 0.832 | 12.92 |
(NSEC)—Neighborhood Social Environment Constraints (α = 0.921; CR = 0.940; AVE = 0.759) | ||
You can meet bad people in this neighborhood | 0.851 | 14.877 |
Acts of vandalism happen in this neighborhood | 0.882 | 21.078 |
Here in the night there is the risk of dangerous encounters | 0.849 | 15.087 |
People do not gossip too much in this neighborhood | 0.871 | 19.053 |
In this neighborhood you feel watched | 0.724 | 12.548 |
In this neighborhood people are intrusive | 0.784 | 17.146 |
In this neighborhood it is difficult to make friends with people | 0.832 | 16.958 |
In this neighborhood it is difficult to get to know people | 0.714 | 15.025 |
In this neighborhood people tend to be isolated | 0.971 | 19.487 |
(INT)—Intention to Use Public Transport (α = 0.729; CR = 0.879; AVE = 0.784) | ||
My intention to use public transportation instead of the private vehicle for my frequent trips in the next seven days is strong. | 0.916 | 22.08 |
I intend to use public transportation instead of the private vehicle for my frequent trips in the next seven days. | 0.854 | 22.613 |
(SE)—Social Exclusion (α = 0.762; CR = 0.904; AVE = 0.856) | ||
Gross household income | 0.591 * | 0.114 |
Unemployment status | 0.748 | 0.005 |
Recent participation in political or community groups | 0.749 | 7.186 |
Exclusion form range of activities such as hobbies, shopping, leisure etc. | 0.867 | 16.567 |
Easy to could get help from others if they needed it | 0.846 | 17.296 |
Construct | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0.912 | 0.812 | 0.789 | 0.649 | 0.72 | 0.76 | 0.682 | 0.73 | 0.872 | 0.849 |
| 0.744 ** | 0.871 | 0.724 | 0.463 | 0.818 | 0.512 | 0.537 | 0.8 | 0.73 | 0.796 |
| 0.781 ** | 0.828 ** | 0.845 | 0.499 | 0.615 | 0.641 | 0.676 | 0.851 | 0.559 | 0.853 |
| 0.568 ** | 0.417 ** | 0.452 ** | 0.873 | 0.684 | 0.719 | 0.676 | 0.795 | 0.495 | 0.644 |
| 0.872 ** | 0.727 ** | 0.797 ** | 0.586 ** | 0.89 | 0.589 | 0.753 | 0.741 | 0.809 | 0.825 |
| 0.803 ** | 0.839 ** | 0.837 ** | 0.617 ** | 0.809 ** | 0.829 | 0.784 | 0.749 | 0.785 | 0.605 |
| 0.565 ** | 0.451 ** | 0.563 ** | 0.768 ** | 0.612 ** | 0.621 ** | 0.885 | 0.695 | 0.593 | 0.729 |
| 0.787 ** | 0.696 ** | 0.722 ** | 0.678** | 0.787 ** | 0.810 ** | 0.568 ** | 0.857 | 0.85 | 0.811 |
| 0.817 ** | 0.864 ** | 0.838 ** | 0.458 ** | 0.79 ** | 0.815 ** | 0.517 ** | 0.757 ** | 0.827 | 0.825 |
| 0.665 ** | 0.636 ** | 0.663 ** | −0.471 ** | 0.626 ** | 0.663 ** | −0.519 ** | 0.635 ** | 0.681 ** | 0.925 |
Hypothesis | Path | Co-Efficient | t-Value | p-Value | Conclusion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
H1a | EA → Intention | 0.569 | 4.166 *** | 0.001 | Accepted |
H1b | IA → Intention | 0.451 | 2.873 ** | 0.004 | Accepted |
H2a | IN → Intention | 0.601 | 8.088 *** | 0.001 | Accepted |
H2b | DN → Intention | 0.051 | 1.345 n.s. | 0.321 | Rejected |
H3a | PBC → Intention | 0.121 | 2.202 * | 0.038 | Accepted |
H3b | SEF → Intention | 0.317 | 2.673 ** | 0.008 | Accepted |
H4 | PTH → Social Exclusion | −0.193 | 3.205 *** | 0.004 | Accepted |
H5 | NSEC → Social Exclusion | 0.496 | 6.203 *** | 0.000 | Accepted |
H6 | Intention → Social Exclusion | −0.226 | 2.777 ** | 0.006 | Accepted |
R2(Intention to use Public Transport) = 0.442 R2 (Social Exclusion (Behavior) = 0.469 | SRMR composite model = 0.045 |
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Al-Rashid, M.A.; Goh, H.C.; Harumain, Y.A.S.; Ali, Z.; Campisi, T.; Mahmood, T. Psychosocial Barriers of Public Transport Use and Social Exclusion among Older Adults: Empirical Evidence from Lahore, Pakistan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010185
Al-Rashid MA, Goh HC, Harumain YAS, Ali Z, Campisi T, Mahmood T. Psychosocial Barriers of Public Transport Use and Social Exclusion among Older Adults: Empirical Evidence from Lahore, Pakistan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(1):185. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010185
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl-Rashid, Muhammad Ahmad, Hong Ching Goh, Yong Adilah Shamsul Harumain, Zulfiqar Ali, Tiziana Campisi, and Tahir Mahmood. 2021. "Psychosocial Barriers of Public Transport Use and Social Exclusion among Older Adults: Empirical Evidence from Lahore, Pakistan" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 1: 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010185