Comparison of Lifestyle of Catholics and Seventh-Day Adventists and the Relationship with Homocysteine as Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Diseases, a Cross-Sectional Study in Polish Males and Females
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. The Aim of the Study
2.2. Organisation and Course of the Study
2.3. The Study Group
2.4. Methods, Techniques and Research Tools
2.5. Ethical Considerations
3. Results
3.1. Homocysteine Levels
3.2. Eating Habits and BMI
3.3. Addictions
3.4. Physical Activity
3.5. Health Behaviors
3.6. Perceived Stress
3.7. Psychosocial Factors
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | CA N—134 | SDA N—118 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
N—134 | % | N—118 | % | ||
Gender | Female | 87.0 | 64.9 | 75.0 | 63.6 |
Male | 47.0 | 35.1 | 43.0 | 36.4 | |
Place of residence | Village | 29.0 | 21.6 | 39.0 | 33.1 |
City | 105.0 | 78.4 | 79.0 | 66.9 | |
Education | Primary/Elementary | 7.0 | 5.2 | 6.0 | 5.1 |
Vocational | 18.0 | 13.4 | 32.0 | 27.1 | |
Secondary | 33.0 | 24.6 | 41.0 | 34.7 | |
Higher | 79.0 | 56.8 | 39.0 | 33.1 | |
Professional work/Professional activity | Physical work | 17.0 | 12.7 | 39.0 | 33.1 |
Intellectual work | 90.0 | 67.2 | 43.0 | 36.4 | |
Not working/Unemployed | 27.0 | 20.1 | 36,0 | 30.5 | |
Source of income | Professionally active | 94.0 | 70.2 | 75.0 | 63.6 |
Disablement pension | 6.0 | 4.5 | 7.0 | 5.9 | |
Retirement pension | 30.0 | 22.4 | 32.0 | 27.1 | |
Benefits | 4.0 | 2.9 | 4.0 | 23.4 | |
Range | M (SD) | Range | M (SD) | ||
Age | 20–96 | 47.7 (16.039) | 24–94 | 53 (15.711) |
Results | Gender | Age | Overall (%) | |||||||||
Female (%) | Male (%) | SDA | CA | SDA | CA | SDA | CA | |||||
SDA | CA | SDA | CA | under 39 years of age | under 39 years of age | 40–60 years old | 40–60 years od | 60+ | 60+ | SDA | CA | |
Homocysteina | ||||||||||||
Above normal | 46.7 | 50.6 | 72.1 | 78.7 | 56.5 | 45.8 | 45.8 | 58.0 | 72.2 | 83.3 | 55.9 | 60.5 |
p | χ2 = 0.25; p = 0.62 | χ2 = 0.54; p = 0.64 | χ2 = 0.71; p = 0.39 | χ2 = 1.62; p = 0.20 | χ2 = 1.29; p = 0.26 | χ2 = 0.53; p = 0.47 |
Product | % of Persons Consuming Product | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
CA | SDA | p | ||
Bread | Wheat | 50.7 | 29.6 | 0.0044 * |
Brown | 66.4 | 85.6 | ||
Dairy products | Full fat/whole | 51.5 | 43.2 | 0.3487 |
Skimmed/low fat | 48.5 | 54.2 | ||
Milk | Full fat/whole | 42.2 | 19.5 | 0.3803 |
Skimmed/low fat | 45.5 | 27.9 | ||
Rice | Brown | 21.6 | 50.0 | 0.0036 * |
White | 79.1 | 63.5 | ||
Eggs | 76.9 | 83.0 | 0.5848 | |
Pasta, groats | Multi-grain | 55,2 | 78,8 | 0.0036 * |
Wheat | 51.5 | 33.1 | ||
Flakes | Multi-grain | 51.5 | 68.6 | 0.8572 |
Wheat | 14.9 | 17.8 | ||
Fish | Oily | 55.2 | 35.6 | 0.1196 |
White | 57.5 | 58.5 | ||
Meat | Poultry | 88.8 | 66.1 | <0.0000 * |
Beef | 62.7 | 27.1 | ||
Pork | 68.7 | 0.8 | ||
Fat/oil | Vegetable | 76.1 | 90.7 | 0.0003 * |
Animal | 45.5 | 18.4 | ||
Vegetables | 88.8 | 96.4 | 0.6021 | |
Legumes | 70.1 | 86.4 | 0.0063 * | |
Offal | 41.8 | 8.5 | <0.0000 * |
Underweight | Normal | Overweight | Obesity | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% | % | % | % | |||
CA | Female N—87 | 3.45 | 47.13 | 31.03 | 18.39 | |
Male N—47 | - | 31.90 | 40.43 | 27.67 | χ2 = 8.75; p = 0.12 | |
Overall N—134 | 2.24 | 41.79 | 34.33 | 21.64 | ||
SDA | Female N—75 | 1.33 | 56.01 | 32.00 | 10.66 | |
Male N—43 | - | 44.18 | 39.54 | 16.28 | ||
Overall N—118 | 0.85 | 51.65 | 34.75 | 12.75 |
Frequency of Alcohol Consumption | SDA | CA |
---|---|---|
% | % | |
I do not drink alcohol | 0 | 24.6 |
Sporadically/very rare—not more than once a month | 0 | 30.7 |
Rarely—several times a month or once a week | 0 | 56.4 |
Often/frequent—several times a week | 0 | 11.9 |
Daily | 0 | 1.0 |
Smoking cigarettes: | 0 | 17.2 |
10 or less cigarettes a day | 0 | 52.2 |
11–20 cigarettes a day | 0 | 43.5 |
Physical Activity | SDA | CA | p |
---|---|---|---|
% | % | ||
High level of physical activity (>1500 MET-minutes/week) | 59.3 | 46.3 | 0.0065 * |
Sufficient level of physical activity (600–1500 MET-minutes/week | 30.5 | 28.3 | |
Insufficient level of physical activity (<600 MET-minutes/week) | 10.2 | 25.4 |
Subscales of IHB | Catholics (CA) | Seventh-Day Adventists (SDA) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Female (n = 87) | Male (n = 47) | Overall (n = 134) | Female (n = 75) | Male (n = 43) | Overall (n = 118) | ||
Good eating habits | M | 3.54 | 2.96 | 3.34 | 4.24 | 3.93 | 4.91 |
SD | 0.79 | 0.81 | 0.84 | 0.51 | 0.73 | 0.62 | |
Preventive behaviours | M | 3.61 | 3.24 | 3.48 | 3.81 | 3.28 | 3.61 |
SD | 0.66 | 3.44 | 0.67 | 0.61 | 0.76 | 0.71 | |
Positive mental attitude | M | 3.66 | 3.44 | 3.58 | 3.94 | 3.93 | 3.86 |
SD | 0.68 | 0.63 | 0.67 | 0.51 | 0.6 | 0.55 | |
Health practices | M | 3.4 | 3.12 | 3.3 | 3.28 | 3.73 | 3.21 |
SD | 0.77 | 0.62 | 0.73 | 0.66 | 0.72 | 0.69 |
Questions on the PSS-10 Scale | Never (%) | Almost Never (%) | Sometimes (%) | Fairly Often (%) | Very Often (%) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CA | SDA | CA | SDA | CA | SDA | CA | SDA | CA | SDA | |
In the last month, how often have you been upset because of something that happened unexpectedly? | 8.89 | 9.32 | 12.59 | 23.72 | 42.96 | 45.76 | 25.93 | 18.64 | 9.63 | 2.54 |
In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life? | 20.75 | 33.05 | 33.33 | 23.72 | 29.63 | 31.35 | 11.85 | 10.16 | 4.44 | 1.69 |
In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and “stressed”? | 2.96 | 8.47 | 12.59 | 18.64 | 43.70 | 43.22 | 26.67 | 27.11 | 14.08 | 2.54 |
In the last month, how often have you felt confident about your ability to handle your personal problems? | 7.40 | 12.71 | 6.66 | 7.62 | 23.70 | 19.49 | 36.30 | 40.67 | 25.94 | 19.49 |
In the last month, how often have you felt that things were going your way? | 2.22 | 4.23 | 5.19 | 9.32 | 35.56 | 27.96 | 43.70 | 40.67 | 13.33 | 17.79 |
In the last month, how often have you found that you could not cope with all the things that you had to do? | 16.30 | 17.79 | 31.11 | 25.42 | 30.37 | 35.59 | 18.52 | 16.10 | 3.70 | 7.62 |
In the last month, how often have you been able to control irritations in your life? | 1.49 | 5.93 | 2.96 | 4.23 | 31.11 | 27.11 | 42.22 | 44.91 | 22.22 | 17.79 |
In the last month, how often have you felt that you were on top of things? | 5.19 | 3.38 | 7.40 | 7.62 | 36.30 | 37.28 | 40.00 | 37.28 | 11.11 | 14.40 |
In the last month, how often have you been angered because of things that were outside of your control? | 9.63 | 21.18 | 22.22 | 29.66 | 41.49 | 38.13 | 20.00 | 9.32 | 6.66 | 1.69 |
In the last month, how often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high that you could not overcome them? | 17.04 | 26.27 | 33.33 | 31.35 | 31.85 | 33.05 | 14.08 | 9.32 | 3.70 | 0.00 |
Psychosocial Variables | Seventh-Day Adventists (SDA) | Catholics (CA) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
YES | NO | YES | NO | ||
(%) | (%) | (%) | (%) | ||
Stress at work | Lack of control over way of fulfilling duties at work | 11.01 | 88.98 | 10.40 | 89.60 |
Social isolation | Living alone | 15.25 | 84.74 | 11.90 | 88.10 |
Feeling a lack of someone close in whom you can confide | 19.49 | 80.51 | 15.70 | 84.30 | |
Type D personality | Experiencing dejection, depression or feeling of hopelessness | 12.72 | 87.28 | 26.10 | 73.90 |
Loss of interest in life and its pleasures | 6.78 | 93.22 | 19.40 | 80.60 | |
Frequently feeling irritable, dejected | 18.64 | 81.36 | 35.10 | 64.90 | |
Avoiding sharing thoughts and feelings with other people | 33.05 | 66.95 | 34.30 | 65.70 | |
Anxiety | Frequently feeling nervous/agitated, uneasy | 26.28 | 73.72 | 36.60 | 63.40 |
Experiencing difficulty in controlling worries | 29.66 | 70.34 | 35.80 | 64.20 | |
Hostility | Frequently getting angry over minor issues | 23.73 | 76.27 | 41.80 | 58.20 |
Frequent nervousness/agitation due to the habits of others | 23.73 | 76.27 | 40.30 | 59.70 |
Parameter | Estimate | Standard Error | Chi-Square (Walda) | p | Odds Ratio (OR) | Statistics for the Model |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | 0.2040953 | 0.185036 | 1.216615 | 0.2700342 | 1.226415 | Chi2 = 0.96336; p = 0.32635 |
Religion—X1 | 0.2513802 | 0.25623 | 0.9625035 | 0.3265643 | 1.285799 |
Parameter | Estimate | Standard Error | Chi-Square (Walda) | p | Odds Ratio (OR) | Statistics for the Model |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | 0.3031863 | 0.1903103 | 2.538015 | 0.1111443 | 1.354167 | Chi2(1) = 4.4554 p = 0.03480 |
Smoking cigarettes (X2) | 1.143733 | 0.5874138 | 3.79106 | 0.05153573 | 3.138462 | |
Constant | 1.260634 | 0.362727 | 12.07867 | 0.000511 | 3.527656 | Chi2(1) = 7.7458 p = 0.00539 * |
Drinking alcohol (X3) | −0.912754 | 0.34413 | 7.034986 | 0.007997 | 0.401417 | |
Constant | 0.070285 | 0.246257 | 0.081461 | 0.77533 | 1.072814 | Chi2(1) = 4.9516 p = 0.0260 * |
BMI (X4) | 0.517393 | 0.238242 | 4.716327 | 0.029885 | 1.677649 | |
Constant | 0.231324 | 0.242587 | 0.909299 | 0.340308 | 1.260268 | Chi2(1) = 1.7774 p = 0.18248 |
Physical activity (X5) | 0.291956 | 0.221111 | 1.743476 | 0.186709 | 1.339044 | |
Constant | 0.068993 | 0.214549 | 0.103409 | 0.747779 | 1.071429 | Chi2(1) = 9.8314 p = 0.00172 * |
Gender (X6) | 1.23934 | 0.41601 | 8.875087 | 0.002893 | 3.453333 | |
Constant | −1.68933 | 0.635784 | 7.06004 | 0.007886 | 0.184644 | Chi2(1) = 13.983 p = 0.00018 * |
Age (X7) | 0.046534 | 0.013659 | 11.6069 | 0.000658 | 1.047633 | |
Constant | −0.20764 | 0.373399 | 0.309224 | 0.578161 | 0.8125 | Chi2(1)=4.0865 p = 0.04323 * |
Place of residence (X8) | 0.858227 | 0.426263 | 4.053674 | 0.044084 | 2.358974 | |
Constant | 0.163114 | 0.222583 | 0.537033 | 0.46367 | 1.177171 | Chi2(1) = 4.5347 p = 0.03322 * |
Education (X9) | 0.504959 | 0.244828 | 4.25392 | 0.039168 | 1.656918 | |
Constant | 0.049956 | 0.376678 | 0.017589 | 0.894492 | 1.051225 | Chi2(1) = 1.4747 p = 0.22462 |
Professional work (X10) | 0.382224 | 0.317063 | 1.453266 | 0.228014 | 1.46554 | |
Constant | 0.275687 | 0.275348 | 1.002464 | 0.316723 | 1.317436 | Chi2(1) = 0.71413 p = 0.39808 |
Stress (X11) | 0.186499 | 0.221261 | 0.710463 | 0.399297 | 1.205023 | |
Constant | 1.283882 | 0.50388 | 6.492258 | 0.010839 | 3.610627 | Chi2(1) = 3.3167 p = 0.06859 |
Inventory of Health Behaviours (IHB) (X12) | −0.57203 | 0.319851 | 3.198447 | 0.073718 | 0.56438 | |
Constant | 1.093376 | 1.189821 | 0.844454 | 0.358133 | 2.984332 | Chi2(1) = 0.29765 p = 0.58536 |
Psychosocial factors (X13) | −0.03365 | 0.061944 | 0.295053 | 0.587004 | 0.966912 |
Parameter | Estimate | Standard Error | Chi-Square (Walda) | p | Odds Ratio (OR) | Statistics for the Model |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | 0.548383 | 0.534244 | 1.053632 | 0.30468 | 1.730453 | Chi2(1) = 0.03416 p = 0.85336 |
Legumes (X14) | −0.07146 | 0.387114 | 0.034075 | 0.853549 | 0.931035 | |
Constant | −0.60572 | 0.543432 | 1.242373 | 0.265023 | 0.545682 | Chi2(1) = 4.3289 p = 0.03748 * |
Brown bread (X15) | 0.80866 | 0.398843 | 4.110809 | 0.042618 | 2.244898 | |
Constant | 1.187843 | 0.594322 | 3.994617 | 0.045654 | 3.28 | Chi2(1) = 1.7183 p = 0.18992 |
Fat milk (X16) | −0.47 | 0.360601 | 1.698821 | 0.192452 | 0.625 | |
Constant | −0.52057 | 0.552626 | 0.887338 | 0.346207 | 0.594184 | Chi2(1) = 3.4567 p = 0.06301 |
Multi-grain flakes (X17) | 0.665748 | 0.361292 | 3.395507 | 0.065384 | 1.945946 | |
Constant | −0.9018 | 0.55569 | 2.633636 | 0.104632 | 0.405838 | Chi2(1) = 6.6469 p = 0.00994 * |
Wheat pasta, groats (X18) | 0.930788 | 0.367197 | 6.425452 | 0.011254 | 2.536508 |
Parameter | Estimate | Standard Error | Chi-Square (Walda) | p | Odds Ratio (OR) | Statistics for the Model |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | cannot be estimated | |||||
Smoking cigarettes (X2) | ||||||
Constant | cannot be estimated | |||||
Drinking alcohol (X3) | ||||||
Constant | −0.25049 | 0.244163 | 1.05252 | 0.304935 | 0.778417 | Chi2(1) = 0.08538 p = 0.77013 |
BMI (X4) | 0.07688 | 0.263015 | 0.085441 | 0.770056 | 1.079913 | |
Constant | −0.10969 | 0.229939 | 0.22757 | 0.633335 | 0.896111 | Chi2(1) = 0.47512 p = 0.49065 |
Physical activity (X5) | −0.19082 | 0.278234 | 0.470375 | 0.49282 | 0.826278 | |
Constant | −0.187212 | 0.231963 | 0.65137 | 0.419629 | 0.829256 | Chi2(1) = 8.1242 p = 0.00437 * |
Gender (X6) | 1.13629 | 0.411589 | 7.62171 | 0.00577 | 3.115265 | |
Constant | 1.117417 | 0.682945 | 2.677072 | 0.101813 | 3.056949 | Chi2(1) = 4.2171 p = 0.04003 * |
Age (X7) | −0.02495 | 0.012492 | 3.988586 | 0.045818 | 0.975361 | |
Constant | 0.154151 | 0.321196 | 0.230331 | 0.631282 | 1.166667 | Chi2(1) = 1.8740 p = 0.17103 |
Place of residence (X8) | −0.53856 | 0.394587 | 1.862886 | 0.172302 | 0.583587 | |
Constant | −0.22749 | 0.293536 | 0.600645 | 0.438338 | 0.796527 | Chi2(1) = 0.01059 p = 0.91803 |
Education (X9) | 0.02358 | 0.229353 | 0.01057 | 0.918114 | 1.02386 | |
Constant | 0.416838 | 0.297579 | 1.962137 | 0.161295 | 1.517156 | Chi2(1) = 7.4577 p = 0.00632 * |
Professional work (X10) | −0.65165 | 0.2451 | 7.068639 | 0.007848 | 0.521188 | |
Constant | −0.314 | 0.282131 | 1.23865 | 0.26574 | 0.730522 | Chi2(1) = 0.26917 p = 0.60389 |
Stress (X11) | 0.129151 | 0.249066 | 0.268885 | 0.604084 | 1.137862 | |
Constant | −0.80939 | 0.832888 | 0.944363 | 0.331166 | 0.445131 | Chi2(1) = 0.56631 p = 0.45174 |
Inventory of Health Behaviours (IHB) (X12) | 0.339384 | 0.454064 | 0.558661 | 0.454806 | 1.404082 | |
Constant | 0.4039324 | −0.03069895 | 0.4039324 | −0.03069895 | 0.4039324 | Chi2(1) = 0.15724 p = 0.69172 |
Psychosocial factors (X13) | 1.544653 | 0.0774489 | 1.544653 | 0.0774489 | 1.544653 |
Parameter | Estimate | Standard Error | Chi-Square (Walda) | p | Odds Ratio (OR) | Statistics for the Model |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | −1.94591 | 0.7559674 | 6.625817 | 0.010055 | 0.142857 | Chi2(1) = 8.9016 p = 0.00285 * |
Legumes (X14) | 1.94591 | 0.781624 | 6.197982 | 0.012795 | 7 | |
Constant | 0.941669 | 0.700373 | 1.80775 | 0.178788 | 2.564258 | Chi2(1) = 3.1204 p = 0.07733 |
Brown bread (X15) | −1.02014 | 0.610478 | 2.792416 | 0.094721 | 0.360544 | |
Constant | −0.73603 | 0.878969 | 0.701203 | 0.402386 | 0.479012 | Chi2(1) = 0.38949 p = 0.53257 |
Fat milk (X16) | 0.294197 | 0.474235 | 0.384848 | 0.535024 | 1.342048 | |
Constant | −0.91191 | 0.559816 | 2.65344 | 0.103336 | 0.401758 | Chi2(1) = 1.8149 p = 0.17793 |
Multi-grain flakes (X17) | 0.537212 | 0.399963 | 1.804064 | 0.179231 | 1.71123 | |
Constant | 0.103819 | 0.582921 | 0.03172 | 0.858644 | 1.1094 | Chi2(1) = 0.31170 p = 0.57664 |
Wheat pasta, groats (X18) | −0.25464 | 0.458224 | 0.308819 | 0.578409 | 0.775194 |
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Majda, A.; Zalewska-Puchała, J.; Bodys-Cupak, I.; Kamińska, A.; Kurowska, A.; Suder, M. Comparison of Lifestyle of Catholics and Seventh-Day Adventists and the Relationship with Homocysteine as Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Diseases, a Cross-Sectional Study in Polish Males and Females. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 309. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010309
Majda A, Zalewska-Puchała J, Bodys-Cupak I, Kamińska A, Kurowska A, Suder M. Comparison of Lifestyle of Catholics and Seventh-Day Adventists and the Relationship with Homocysteine as Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Diseases, a Cross-Sectional Study in Polish Males and Females. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(1):309. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010309
Chicago/Turabian StyleMajda, Anna, Joanna Zalewska-Puchała, Iwona Bodys-Cupak, Alicja Kamińska, Anna Kurowska, and Marcin Suder. 2021. "Comparison of Lifestyle of Catholics and Seventh-Day Adventists and the Relationship with Homocysteine as Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Diseases, a Cross-Sectional Study in Polish Males and Females" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 1: 309. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010309