Housing, Living Arrangements and Mental Health of Young Adults in Independent Living
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Dataset
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Depressive Symptoms
2.2.2. Housing Problems
2.2.3. Material Hardship
2.2.4. Control Variables
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Prevalence of Housing Problems and Depressive Symptoms
3.2. The Association between Housing Problems and Depressive Symptoms
3.3. The Association between the Breadth of Housing Problems and Depressive Symptoms
3.4. The Mediating Effect of Material Hardship on the Association between Housing Cost Burden and Depressive Symptoms
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- United Nations. Definition of Youth; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Huang, Y.; Heflin, C.M.; Validova, A. Material hardship, perceived stress, and health in early adulthood. Ann. Epidemiol. 2021, 53, 69–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arnett, J.J. Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. Am. Psychol. 2000, 55, 469–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Babajide, A.; Ortin, A.; Wei, C.; Mufson, L.; Duarte, C.S. Transition cliffs for young adults with anxiety and depression: Is integrated mental health care a solution? J. Behav. Health Serv. Res. 2020, 47, 275–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Richard, A.S.; Barbara, R. What’s going on with young people today? The long and twisting path to adulthood. Future Child. 2010, 20, 19–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Green, A. The Crisis for Young People: Generational Inequalities in Education, Work, Housing and Welfare; Springer Nature: Basingstoke, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Stringaris, A.; Lewis, G.; Maughan, B. Developmental pathways from childhood conduct problems to early adult depression: Findings from the ALSPAC cohort. Br. J. Psychiatry 2014, 205, 17–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Galambos, N.L.; Barker, E.T.; Krahn, H.J. Depression, self-esteem, and anger in emerging adulthood: Seven-year trajectories. Dev. Psychol. 2006, 42, 350–365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Benach, J.; Vives, A.; Amable, M.; Vanroelen, C.; Tarafa, G.; Muntaner, C. Precarious employment: Understanding an emerging social determinant of health. Annu. Rev. Public Health 2014, 35, 229–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Canivet, C.; Bodin, T.; Emmelin, M.; Toivanen, S.; Moghaddassi, M.; Östergren, P.O. Precarious employment is a risk factor for poor mental health in young individuals in Sweden: A cohort study with multiple follow-ups. BMC Public Health 2016, 16, 687. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sharaf, M.F.; Rashad, A.S. Does precarious employment ruin youth health and marriage? Evidence from Egypt using longitudinal data. Int. J. Dev. Issues 2020, 19, 391–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bobek, A.; Pembroke, S.; Wickham, J. Living in precarious housing: Non-standard employment and housing careers of young professionals in Ireland. Hous. Stud. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beer, A.; Bentley, R.; Baker, E.; Mason, K.; Mallett, S.; Kavanagh, A.; Lamontagne, T. Neoliberalism, economic restructuring and policy change: Precarious housing and precarious employment in Australia. Urban Stud. 2015, 53, 1542–1558. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McKee, K.; Hoolachan, J.E.; Moore, T. The precarity of young people’s housing experiences in a rural context. Scott. Geogr. J. 2017, 133, 115–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mackie, P.K. Young people and housing: Identifying the key issues. Int. J. Hous. Policy 2016, 16, 137–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Forrest, R.; Yip, N.-M. The future for reluctant intervention: The prospects for Hong Kong’s public rental sector. Hous. Stud. 2014, 29, 551–565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clapham, D.; Mackie, P.; Orford, S.; Thomas, I.; Buckley, K. The housing pathways of young people in the UK. Environ. Plan. A 2014, 46, 2016–2031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bricocoli, M.; Sabatinelli, S. House sharing amongst young adults in the context of Mediterranean welfare: The case of Milan. Int. J. Hous. Policy 2016, 16, 184–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Forrest, R.; Xian, S. Accommodating discontent: Youth, conflict and the housing question in Hong Kong. Hous. Stud. 2018, 33, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Park, G.-R.; Jung, Y. Housing insecurity and health among people in South Korea: Focusing on tenure and affordability. Public Health 2019, 171, 116–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suglia, S.F.; Duarte, C.S.; Sandel, M.T. Housing Quality, Housing Instability, and Maternal Mental Health. J. Urban Health 2011, 88, 1105–1116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tsai, J.; Jones, N.; Szymkowiak, D.; Rosenheck, R.A. Longitudinal study of the housing and mental health outcomes of tenants appearing in eviction court. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amerio, A.; Brambilla, A.; Morganti, A.; Aguglia, A.; Bianchi, D.; Santi, F.; Costantini, L.; Odone, A.; Costanza, A.; Signorelli, C.; et al. COVID-19 lockdown: Housing built environment’s effects on mental health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 5973. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baker, E.; Bentley, R.; Mason, K. The mental health effects of housing tenure: Causal or compositional? Urban Stud. 2013, 50, 426–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bentley, R.J.; Pevalin, D.; Baker, E.; Mason, K.; Reeves, A.; Beer, A. Housing affordability, tenure and mental health in Australia and the United Kingdom: A comparative panel analysis. Hous. Stud. 2016, 31, 208–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cairney, J.; Boyle, M.H. Home ownership, mortgages and psychological distress. Hous. Stud. 2004, 19, 161–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chung, R.Y.; Chung, G.K.; Gordon, D.; Mak, J.K.; Zhang, L.F.; Chan, D.; Lai, F.T.; Wong, H.; Wong, S.Y. Housing affordability effects on physical and mental health: Household survey in a population with the world’s greatest housing affordability stress. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2020, 74, 164–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Patel, V.; Flisher, A.J.; Hetrick, S.; McGorry, P. Mental health of young people: A global public-health challenge. Lancet 2007, 369, 1302–1313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hatch, M.E.; Yun, J. Losing your home is bad for your health: Short- and medium-term health effects of eviction on young adults. Hous. Policy Debate 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oh, J.; Kim, J. Relationship between mental health and house sharing: Evidence from Seoul. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kim, Y.-B.; Lee, Y.-M.; Kim, K.-H. 2019 Employment and Labor Force of Young People; Korea Labor Institute: Sejong, Korea, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Cho, E.-I. Temporary Employment, Late- or Non-Marriage and Asset Polarization: 2030 Triangle in the Face Of Covid-19 Pandemic; ChosunBiz: Seoul, Korea, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Statistics Korea. Perceived Stress Scale Trajectory; Statistics Korea: Daejeon, Korea, 2020.
- Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport. 2019 National Housing Survey; Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport: Sejong, Korea, 2020.
- Statistics Korea. 2015 Population and Housing Census; Statistics Korea: Daejeon, Korea, 2016.
- Clark, J.; Kearns, A. Housing improvements, perceived housing quality and psychosocial benefits from the home. Hous. Stud. 2012, 27, 915–939. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martins, P.; Ornelas, J.; Silva, A.C. The role of perceived housing quality and perceived choice to recovery: An ecological perspective on a housing first program in Lisbon. J. Environ. Psychol. 2016, 47, 44–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Evans, G.W.; Li, D.; Whipple, S.S. Cumulative risk and child development. Psychol. Bull. 2013, 139, 1342–1396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Thurston, R.C.; Kubzansky, L.D. Multiple sources of psychosocial disadvantage and risk of coronary heart disease. Psychosom. Med. 2007, 69, 748–755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Saegert, S.; Evans, G.W. Poverty, housing niches, and health in the United States. J. Soc. Issues 2003, 59, 569–589. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silva, M.R.; Kleinert, W.L.; Sheppard, A.V.; Cantrell, K.A.; Freeman-Coppadge, D.J.; Tsoy, E.; Roberts, T.; Pearrow, M. The relationship between food security, housing stability, and school performance among college students in an urban university. J. Coll. Stud. Retent. Res. Theory Pract. 2017, 19, 284–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martinez, S.M.; Esaryk, E.E.; Moffat, L.; Ritchie, L. Redefining basic needs for higher education: It’s more than minimal food and housing according to California university students. Amerian J. Health Promot. 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Glass, A.P. Resident-managed elder intentional neighborhoods: Do they promote social resources for older adults? J. Gerontol. Soc. Work 2016, 59, 554–571. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carrere, J.; Reyes, A.; Oliveras, L.; Fernández, A.; Peralta, A.; Novoa, A.M.; Pérez, K.; Borrell, C. The effects of cohousing model on people’s health and wellbeing: A scoping review. Public Health Rev. 2020, 41, 22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cho, M.J.; Kim, K.H. Use of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) Scale in Korea. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 1998, 186, 304–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Takeshita, J.; Masaki, K.; Ahmed, I.; Foley, D.J.; Li, Y.Q.; Chen, R.; Fujii, D.; Ross, G.W.; Petrovitch, H.; White, L. Are depressive symptoms a risk factor for mortality in elderly Japanese American men?: The Honolulu-Asia aging study. Am. J. Psychiatry 2002, 159, 1127–1132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baron, R.M.; Kenny, D.A. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 1986, 51, 1173–1182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- VanderWeele, T.J. Mediation analysis: A practitioner’s guide. Annu. Rev. Public Health 2016, 37, 17–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Phillips, D.R.; Siu, O.L.; Yeh, A.; Cheng, K. The impacts of dwelling conditions on older persons’ psychological well-being in Hong Kong: The mediating role of residential satisfaction. Soc. Sci. Med. 2005, 60, 2785–2797. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Park, G.R.; Seo, B.K. Revisiting the relationship among housing tenure, affordability and mental health: Do dwelling conditions matter? Health Soc. Care Community 2020, 28, 2225–2232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lima, J.; Caughy, M.; Nettles, S.M.; O’Campo, P.J. Effects of cumulative risk on behavioral and psychological well-being in first grade: Moderation by neighborhood context. Soc. Sci. Med. 2010, 71, 1447–1454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Erikson, E. Identity and the Life Cycle; International Universities Press: New York, NY, USA, 1959. [Google Scholar]
- Park, J.Y. 40% of Single Households Living in Monthly Rental...54% in below 40 sq. m. Unit; ChosunBiz: Seoul, Korea, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- McIntyre, L.L.; Blacher, J.; Baker, B.L. Behaviour/mental health problems in young adults with intellectual disability: The impact on families. J. Intellect. Disabil. Res. 2002, 46, 239–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jordyn, M.; Byrd, M. The relationship between the living arrangements of university students and their identity development. Adolescence 2003, 38, 267–278. [Google Scholar]
- Seo, B.; Joo, Y.-M. Housing the very poor or the young? Implications of the changing public housing policy in South Korea. Hous. Stud. 2018, 33, 1227–1245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ministry of Health and Welfare. Housing Benefit for Young Adults; Ministry of Health and Welfare: Sejong, Korea, 2018.
Total (n = 1308) | Types of Household | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Single-Person(n = 761) | Non-Single-Person (n = 547) | |||||
Distribution (%) | Depressive Symptoms (%) | Distribution (%) | Depressive Symptoms (%) | Distribution (%) | Depressive Symptoms (%) | |
Type of housing problem | ||||||
Housing cost burden | 74.5 | 13.3 | 69.3 | 16.5 | 81.7 | 9.6 |
Inadequate housing quality 1 | 45.0 | 17.5 | 47.2 | 19.2 | 41.9 | 14.8 |
Poor lighting | 10.2 | 22.6 | 13.3 | 24.8 | 5.9 | 15.6 |
Poor soundproof | 37.2 | 18.3 | 38.5 | 20.1 | 35.3 | 15.5 |
Dampness | 15.5 | 19.7 | 14.7 | 23.2 | 16.6 | 15.4 |
Poor ventilation | 10.1 | 28.0 | 12.6 | 29.2 | 6.6 | 25.0 |
Poor protection from break-in | 11.5 | 24.0 | 11.7 | 27.0 | 11.2 | 19.7 |
Poor protection from natural disaster | 9.4 | 27.6 | 10.4 | 27.8 | 8.0 | 27.3 |
Poor protection from fire | 10.6 | 25.9 | 11.3 | 31.4 | 9.7 | 17.0 |
Poor sanitization | 9.2 | 23.3 | 9.9 | 26.7 | 8.2 | 17.8 |
Number of housing problem | ||||||
Single | 50.9 | 10.7 | 49.4 | 14.2 | 52.3 | 5.9 |
Double | 34.3 | 18.1 | 33.3 | 20.2 | 35.7 | 15.4 |
At least one of them | 85.2 | 13.6 | 87.9 | 16.6 | 83.2 | 9.8 |
Material hardship | 21.5 | 24.6 | 24.1 | 24.6 | 17.9 | 24.5 |
Food insecurity | 17.9 | 24.4 | 20.0 | 23.7 | 15.0 | 25.6 |
Not being able to use heating | 5.8 | 40.8 | 6.2 | 44.7 | 5.3 | 34.5 |
Not being able to use air-conditioning | 6.8 | 38.2 | 7.8 | 39.0 | 5.5 | 36.7 |
Total | 100.0 | 12.4 | 100.0 | 14.6 | 100.0 | 9.3 |
Total (n = 1308) | Single-Person (n = 761) | Non-Single-Person (n = 547) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | |
Housing cost burden (ref: no) | 1 | (reference) | 1 | (reference) | 1 | (reference) |
Yes | 1.470 | (0.947–2.283) | 1.916 * | (1.134–3.236) | 1.019 | (0.430–2.413) |
Number of items of inadequate housing quality | 1.318 *** | (1.215–1.429) | 1.313 *** | (1.188–1.451) | 1.338 *** | (1.154–1.551) |
Total (n = 1308) | Single-Person (n = 761) | Non-Single-Person (n = 547) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | |
None | 1 | (reference) | 1 | (reference) | 1 | (reference) |
Single 1 | 2.239 * | (1.121–4.470) | 3.445 ** | (1.435–8.269) | 0.923 | (0.282–3.011) |
Double 2 | 4.339 *** | (2.152–8.744) | 5.573 *** | (2.282–13.608) | 2.808 | (0.858–9.200) |
Total (n = 1308) | Single-Person (n = 761) | Non-Single-Person (n = 547) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | |
Housing cost burden | 5.659 *** | (2.976–10.761) | 2.195 *** | (1.442–3.344) | 1.977 | (0.938–4.164) |
Total (n = 1308) | Single-Person (n = 761) | Non-Single-Person (n = 547) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | |||||||
Coeff. | 95% CI | Coeff. | 95% CI | Coeff. | 95% CI | Coeff. | 95% CI | Coeff. | 95% CI | Coeff. | 95% CI | |
Housing cost burden | 0.024 | (−0.005, 0.054) | 0.013 | (−0.016, 0.043) | 0.047 * | (0.007, 0.086) | 0.035 | (−0.004, 0.074) | 0.002 | (−0.046, 0.050) | −0.009 | (−0.055, 0.038) |
Material hardship | 0.010 *** | (0.074, 0.134) | 0.088 *** | (0.048, 0.129) | 0.131 | (0.088, 0.175) |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Seo, B.-K.; Park, G.-R. Housing, Living Arrangements and Mental Health of Young Adults in Independent Living. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 5250. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105250
Seo B-K, Park G-R. Housing, Living Arrangements and Mental Health of Young Adults in Independent Living. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(10):5250. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105250
Chicago/Turabian StyleSeo, Bo-Kyong, and Gum-Ryeong Park. 2021. "Housing, Living Arrangements and Mental Health of Young Adults in Independent Living" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 10: 5250. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105250