Smoking from a Younger Age Is the Dominant Factor in the Incidence of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Case-Control Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Source
2.3. Sample Selection
2.4. The Operational Definition of the Variable
2.5. Instruments
2.6. Statistical Analysis
2.7. Ethical Clearance
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of Respondents
3.2. Smoking Behavior
4. Discussion
4.1. Key Findings
4.2. Characteristics of Respondents
4.3. Smoking Behavior
4.3.1. Smoking Habit
4.3.2. Initial Smoking Age
4.3.3. Smoking Duration
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
COPD | Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease |
USD | United States Dollar |
BLUD | Regional Public Service Agency (in English) |
OR | Odds Ratio |
CI | Confidence Interval |
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Variables | Case | Control | p | OR | 95% CI | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | ||||
Sex | |||||||
Male | 42 | 75.00 | 18 | 32.14 | 0.00 | 6.333 | 2.776–14.450 |
Female | 14 | 25.00 | 38 | 67.86 | |||
Age | |||||||
Elderly (≥65 years old) | 30 | 53.57 | 5 | 8.93 | 0.00 | 11.769 | 4.086–33.903 |
Adult (≥30–<65 years old) | 26 | 46.43 | 51 | 91.07 | |||
Education | |||||||
Low Education | 38 | 67.86 | 36 | 64.29 | 0.69 | 1.173 | 0.536–2.567 |
High Education | 18 | 32.14 | 20 | 35.7 | |||
Total | 56 | 100.00 | 56 | 100.00 |
Variables | Case | Control | p | OR | 95% CI | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | ||||
Smoking Habit | |||||||
Non-Smokers | 8 | 14.28 | 20 | 35.72 | |||
Secondhand Smokers | 11 | 19.64 | 18 | 32.14 | 0.236 | 1.5278 | 0.5028–4.6418 |
Smokers | 37 | 66.07 | 18 | 32.14 | 0.00050 | 5.1318 | 1.9004–13.8958 |
Initial Smoking Age | |||||||
Non-Smokers | 19 | 33.93 | 38 | 67.86 | 2.599–13.620 | ||
Smokers who initially smoked at <15 years old | 6 | 10.7 | 1 | 1.79 | 0.026 | 12 | 1.346–106.95 |
Smokers who initially smoked at ≥15 years old | 31 | 55.4 | 17 | 30.35 | 0.002 | 3.647 | 1.625–8.183 |
Smoking Duration | |||||||
Non-Smokers | 19 | 33.93 | 38 | 67.86 | |||
Smokers who smoked for <30 years | 6 | 10.71 | 11 | 19.64 | 0.881 | 1.091 | 0.350–3.401 |
Smokers who smoked for ≥30 years | 31 | 55.36 | 7 | 12.5 | 0.000 | 8.857 | 3.298–23.787 |
Total | 56 | 100.00 | 56 | 100.00 |
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Safitri, W.; Martini, S.; Artanti, K.D.; Li, C.-Y. Smoking from a Younger Age Is the Dominant Factor in the Incidence of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Case-Control Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6047. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18116047
Safitri W, Martini S, Artanti KD, Li C-Y. Smoking from a Younger Age Is the Dominant Factor in the Incidence of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Case-Control Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(11):6047. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18116047
Chicago/Turabian StyleSafitri, Winda, Santi Martini, Kurnia Dwi Artanti, and Chung-Yi Li. 2021. "Smoking from a Younger Age Is the Dominant Factor in the Incidence of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Case-Control Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 11: 6047. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18116047