The Mental Well-Being of Health Care Workers during the Peak of the COVID-19 Pandemic—A Nationwide Study in Poland
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Methods
2.2. Participants
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Comparison of Mental Health and COVID-19 Preventive Behaviours among Medical and Non-Medical Professionals
3.2. A Detailed Analysis of Individual Subgroups among Health Professionals
3.3. Analysis of Demographic Factors on the Mental Condition of Health Care Workers
3.4. Analysis of Potencial Confounding Factors
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Babicki, M.; Mastalerz-Migas, A. The occurrence of anxiety disorders among Polish people during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychiatr. Pol. 2020, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lai, C.-C.; Shih, T.-P.; Ko, W.-C.; Tang, H.-J.; Hsueh, P.-R. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19): The Epidemic and the Challenges. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2020, 55, 105924. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lai, C.-C.; Wang, C.-Y.; Wang, Y.-H.; Hsueh, S.-C.; Ko, W.-C.; Hsueh, P.-R. Global Epidemiology of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Disease Incidence, Daily Cumulative Index, Mortality, and Their Association with Country Healthcare Resources and Economic Status. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2020, 55, 105946. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roser, M.; Ritchie, H.; Ortiz-Ospina, E.; Hasell, J. Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19). Our World in Data. 2020. Available online: https://ourworldindata.org/coronavirus (accessed on 16 March 2021).
- Koronawirus w Polsce—Aktualne Dane i Wykresy. Available online: https://koronawirusunas.pl/ (accessed on 16 March 2021).
- State of Health in the EU—Polska. Available online: https://www.oecd.org/poland/Polska-Profil-systemu-ochrony-zdrowia-2019-Launch-presentation.pdf (accessed on 16 March 2021).
- Lai, J.; Ma, S.; Wang, Y.; Cai, Z.; Hu, J.; Wei, N.; Wu, J.; Du, H.; Chen, T.; Li, R.; et al. Factors Associated with Mental Health Outcomes among Health Care Workers Exposed to Coronavirus Disease 2019. JAMA Netw. Open 2020, 3, e203976. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fernandez, R.; Lord, H.; Halcomb, E.; Moxham, L.; Middleton, R.; Alananzeh, I.; Ellwood, L. Implications for COVID-19: A systematic review of nurses’ experiences of working in acute care hospital settings during a respiratory pandemic. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 2020, 111, 103637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bai, Y.; Lin, C.-C.; Lin, C.-Y.; Chen, J.-Y.; Chue, C.-M.; Chou, P. Survey of Stress Reactions among Health Care Workers Involved with the SARS Outbreak. Psychiatr. Serv. 2004, 55, 1055–1057. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nickell, L.A.; Crighton, E.J.; Tracy, C.S.; Al-Enazy, H.; Bolaji, Y.; Hanjrah, S.; Hussain, A.; Makhlouf, S.; Upshur, R.E.G. Psychosocial effects of SARS on hospital staff: Survey of a large tertiary care institution. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 2004, 170, 793–798. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rajkumar, R.P. COVID-19 and mental health: A review of the existing literature. Asian J. Psychiatry 2020, 52, 102066. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Spoorthy, M.S.; Pratapa, S.K.; Mahant, S. Mental health problems faced by healthcare workers due to the COVID-19 pandemic—A review. Asian J. Psychiatry 2020, 51, 102119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kang, L.; Ma, S.; Chen, M.; Yang, J.; Wang, Y.; Li, R.; Yao, L.; Bai, H.; Cai, Z.; Yang, B.X.; et al. Impact on mental health and perceptions of psychological care among medical and nursing staff in Wuhan during the 2019 novel coronavirus disease outbreak: A cross-sectional study. Brain Behav. Immun. 2020, 87, 11–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Poland Coronavirus: 1,931,921 Cases and 47,578 Deaths—Worldometer. Available online: https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/country/poland/ (accessed on 16 March 2021).
- Zdrowia, M. Informacja o Zgonach w Polsce w 2020 Roku. Available online: https://www.gov.pl/attachment/489b7a0b-a616-4231-94c7-281c41d3aa30 (accessed on 16 March 2021).
- Goldberga, D. Polska Adaptacja Kwestionariusza Ogólnego Stanu Zdrowia Davida Goldberga: GHQ-12, GHQ-28. W Ocenie Zdrowia Psychicznego Na Podstawie Kwestionariuszy; Instytut Medycyny Pracy: Łódź, Poland, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Goldberg, D.P.; Hillier, V.F. A scaled version of the General Health Questionnaire. Psychol. Med. 1979, 9, 139–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Adams, J.G.; Walls, R.M. Supporting the Health Care Workforce during the COVID-19 Global Epidemic. JAMA 2020, 323, 1439–1440. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cai, H.; Tu, B.; Ma, J.; Chen, L.; Fu, L.; Jiang, Y.; Zhuang, Q. Psychological impacts and coping strategies of front-line medical staff during COVID-19 outbreak in Hunan, China. Med. Sci. Monit. 2020, 26, e924171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abdessater, M.; Rouprêt, M.; Misrai, V.; Pinar, U.; Matillon, X.; Gondran-Tellier, B.; Freton, L.; Vallée, M.; Dominique, I.; Felber, M.; et al. COVID-19 outbreak situation and its psychological impact among surgeons in training in France. World J. Urol. 2021, 39, 971–972. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Presti, G.; Dal Lago, B.; Fattori, A.; Mioli, G.; Moderato, P.; Sciaretta, L.; Costantino, M.A. Mental Health Support to Staff in a Major Hospital in Milan (Italy) during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Framework of Actions. Gen. Psychiatry 2020, 33, e100244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Di Tella, M.; Romeo, A.; Benfante, A.; Castelli, L. Mental health of healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. J. Eval. Clin. Pract. 2020, 26, 1583–1587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khanal, P.; Devkota, N.; Dahal, M.; Paudel, K.; Joshi, D. Mental health impacts among health workers during COVID-19 in a low resource setting: A cross-sectional survey from Nepal. Glob. Health 2020, 16, 89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hospital Beds (per 1000 people)—Poland. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.BEDS.ZS?locations=PL (accessed on 16 March 2021).
- Health Resources—Doctors—OECD Data. Available online: https://data.oecd.org/healthres/doctors.htm (accessed on 16 March 2021).
- Health Resources—Nurses—OECD Data. Available online: https://data.oecd.org/healthres/nurses.htm (accessed on 16 March 2021).
- Hummel, S.; Oetjen, N.; Du, J.; Posenato, E.; Resende de Almeida, R.M.; Losada, R.; Ribeiro, O.; Frisardi, V.; Hopper, L.; Rashid, A.; et al. Mental Health among Medical Professionals during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Eight European Countries: Cross-Sectional Survey Study. J. Med. Internet Res. 2021, 23, e24983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, S.-H.; Juang, Y.-Y.; Su, Y.-J.; Lee, H.-L.; Lin, Y.-H.; Chao, C.-C. Facing SARS: Psychological impacts on SARS team nurses and psychiatric services in a Taiwan general hospital. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry 2005, 27, 352–358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muller, A.E.; Hafstad, E.V.; Himmels, J.P.W.; Smedslund, G.; Flottorp, S.; Stensland, S.Ø.; Stroobants, S.; Van De Velde, S.; Vist, G.E. The mental health impact of the covid-19 pandemic on healthcare workers, and interventions to help them: A rapid systematic review. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 293, 113441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adam, E.K.; Quinn, M.E.; Tavernier, R.; McQuillan, M.T.; Dahlke, K.A.; Gilbert, K.E. Diurnal cortisol slopes and mental and physical health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2017, 83, 25–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Juruena, M.F.; Eror, F.; Cleare, A.J.; Young, A.H. The Role of Early Life Stress in HPA Axis and Anxiety. In Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology; Springer: Singapore, 2020; pp. 141–153. [Google Scholar]
- Stetler, C.; Miller, G.E. Depression and Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Activation: A Quantitative Summary of Four Decades of Research. Psychosom. Med. 2011, 73, 114–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hong, S.; Collins, A. Societal Responses to Familiar versus Unfamiliar Risk: Comparisons of Influenza and SARS in Korea. Risk Anal. 2006, 26, 1247–1257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perrin, P.C.; McCabe, O.L.; Everly, G.S.; Links, J.M. Preparing for an Influenza Pandemic: Mental Health Considerations. Prehosp. Disaster Med. 2009, 24, 223–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ramaci, T.; Barattucci, M.; Ledda, C.; Rapisarda, V. Social Stigma during COVID-19 and Its Impact on HCWs Outcomes. Sustainability 2020, 12, 3834. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Effenberger, M.; Kronbichler, A.; Shin, J.I.; Mayer, G.; Tilg, H.; Perco, P. Association of the COVID-19 Pandemic with Internet Search Volumes: A Google TrendsTM Analysis. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2020, 95, 192–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ni, M.Y.; Yang, L.; Leung, C.M.C.; Li, N.; Yao, X.I.; Wang, Y.; Leung, G.M.; Cowling, B.J.; Liao, Q. Mental Health, Risk Factors, and Social Media Use during the COVID-19 Epidemic and Cordon Sanitaire among the Community and Health Professionals in Wuhan, China: Cross-Sectional Survey. JMIR Ment. Health 2020, 7, e19009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Babicki, M.; Szewczykowska, I.; Mastalerz-Migas, A. Mental Health in the Era of the Second Wave of SARS-CoV-2: A Cross-Sectional Study Based on an Online Survey among Online Respondents in Poland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maciaszek, J.; Ciulkowicz, M.; Misiak, B.; Szczesniak, D.; Luc, D.; Wieczorek, T.; Fila-Witecka, K.; Gawlowski, P.; Rymaszewska, J. Mental Health of Medical and Non-Medical Professionals during the Peak of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Nationwide Study. J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9, 2527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Patel, R.; Oduola, S.; Callard, F.; Wykes, T.; Broadbent, M.; Stewart, R.; Craig, T.K.J.; McGuire, P. What proportion of patients with psychosis is willing to take part in research? A mental health electronic case register analysis. BMJ Open 2017, 7, e013113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- De Graaf, R.; Bijl, R.V.; Smit, F.; Ravelli, A.; Vollebergh, W.A.M. Psychiatric and Sociodemographic Predictors of Attrition in a Longitudinal Study The Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study (NEMESIS). Am. J. Epidemiol. 2000, 152, 1039–1047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Weaver, M.D.; Vetter, C.; Rajaratnam, S.M.; O’Brien, C.S.; Qadri, S.; Benca, R.M.; Rogers, A.E.; Leary, E.; Walsh, J.K.; Czeisler, C.A.; et al. Sleep disorders, depression and anxiety are associated with adverse safety outcomes in healthcare workers: A prospective cohort study. J. Sleep Res. 2018, 27, e12722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Du, J.; Dong, L.; Wang, T.; Yuan, C.; Fu, R.; Zhang, L.; Liu, B.; Zhang, M.; Yin, Y.; Qin, J.; et al. Psychological symptoms among frontline healthcare workers during COVID-19 outbreak in Wuhan. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry 2020, 67, 144–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bernstein, C.A.; Bhattacharyya, S.; Adler, S.; Alpert, J.E. Staff Emotional Support at Montefiore Medical Center during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Jt. Comm. J. Qual. Patient Saf. 2021, 47, 185–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Medical Profession (n = 848) [%] | Non-Medical Professions (n = 1302) [%] | p | |
---|---|---|---|
Sex: female | 736 (86.8%) | 1023 (78.6%) | <0.001 |
Age [years] | 34.14 ±8.00 | 32.5 ±10.09 | <0.001 |
Place of residence: city > 250,000 inhabitants | 449 (52.9%) | 837 (64.3%) | <0.001 |
Marital status: single | 160 (18.9%) | 458 (35.1%) | <0.001 |
Level of education: higher (university degree) | 782 (92.2%) | 997 (76.6%) | <0.001 |
Limited earning capacity: no | 660 (77.8%) | 796 (61.1%) | <0.001 |
The use of psychiatric/psychological services due to the COVID-19 pandemic: yes | 62 (7.3%) | 95 (7.3%) | 0.989 |
Past psychiatric treatment: yes | 166 (19.6%) | 208 (15.9%) | 0.86 |
Psychiatric medication use: yes | 175 (20.6%) | 251 (19.3%) | 0.005 |
Chronic conditions: yes | 192 (22.6%) | 294 (22.6%) | 0.97 |
Being quarantined: yes | 226 (26.7%) | 196 (15.1%) | <0.001 |
COVID-19 diagnosis: yes | 167 (19.7%) | 120 (9.3%) | <0.001 |
COVID-19 diagnosis: yes, confirmed in a loved one | 659 (77.7%) | 824 (63.3%) | <0.001 |
COVID-19-related death of a loved one: yes | 171 (20.1%) | 139 (10.6%) | <0.001 |
Variable | Medical Professionals (n = 848) | Non-Medical Professionals (n = 1302) | p |
---|---|---|---|
GHQ-28, a positive score | 545 (64.27%) | 727 (55.84%) | <0.001 |
GHQ-28 | 30.35 (14.53) | 28.55 (15.16) | <0.001 |
GHQ-28—social dysfunction | 8.86 (3.40) | 9.06 (3.61) | 0.665 |
GHQ-28—severe depression | 3.82 (4.36) | 4.22 (4.72) | 0.131 |
GHQ-28—somatic symptoms | 7.83 (4.40) | 6.70 (4.21) | <0.001 |
GHQ-28—anxiety and insomnia | 9.85 (5.26) | 8.56 (5.17) | <0.001 |
Fear for one’s own health | 5.79 (2.30) | 5.05 (5.76) | <0.001 |
Fear for loved ones | 8.57 (1.83) | 7.39 (2.85) | <0.001 |
Fear of being infected with COVID-19: yes | 761 (89.74%) | 967 (74.27%) | <0.001 |
Limitation of family gatherings: yes | 602 (70.99%) | 585 (44.93%) | <0.001 |
Limitation of gatherings with friends | 690 (81.37%) | 650 (49.92%) | <0.001 |
Minimised outings: yes * | 709 (83.61%) | 756 (58.06%) | <0.001 |
Staying home to reduce the spread of the pandemic: yes | 289 (34.16%) | 276 (21.21%) | <0.001 |
Wearing face masks in a confined space: yes, always/usually | 847 (99.88%) | 1266 (97.24%) | <0.001 |
Wearing face masks in an open space: yes, always/usually | 823 (97.05%) | 1093 (85.95%) | <0.001 |
Subjective deterioration of mental health: yes | 613 (72.28%) | 832 (63.90%) | <0.001 |
Work with COVID-19 Patients | Forced Secondment to Work with COVID-19 Patients | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yes (n = 561) | No (n = 287) | p | Yes * (n = 74) | No (n = 774) | p | |
GHQ-28, a positive score | 69.52% | 54.01% | <0.001 | 72.97% | 63.44% | 0.101 |
GHQ-28 | 32.14 (14.68) | 26.85 (13.57) | <0.001 | 34.92 (15.91) | 29.91 (14.32) | 0.011 |
GHQ-28: social dysfunction | 8.99 (3.47) | 8.60 (3.27) | 0.055 | 9.30 (3.54) | 8.82 (3.39) | 0.209 |
GHQ-28: severe depression | 4.01 (4.48) | 3.45 (4.12) | 0.049 | 4.85 (5.31) | 3.72 (4.25) | 0.112 |
GHQ-28: somatic symptoms | 8.52 (4.42) | 6.46 (4.01) | <0.001 | 9.33 (4.50) | 7.68 (4.36) | 0.002 |
GHQ-28: anxiety and insomnia | 10.61 (5.21) | 8.34 (5.02) | <0.001 | 11.43 (5.22) | 9.69 (5.24) | 0.009 |
Fear for one’s own health | 5.43 (2.54) | 5.83 (2.28) | 0.148 | 5.83 (2.33) | 5.72 (2.24) | 0.516 |
Fear for the health of loved ones | 8.67 (1.80) | 8.56 (1.83) | 0.568 | 8.69 (1.72) | 8.34 (2.01) | 0.010 |
Variable (n = 848) | GHQ-28 | GHQ-28: Somatic Symptoms | GHQ-28: Anxiety/Sleep Disorder | GHQ-28: Social Dysfunctions | GHQ-28: Depression | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M (SD) | p | M (SD) | p | M (SD) | p | M (SD) | p | M (SD) | p | ||
Sex | Male | 26.41 (12.94) | <0.001 | 6.45 (4.05) | <0.001 | 8.52 (4.94) | <0.001 | 8.08 (3.18) | 0.001 | 3.33 (4.08) | 0.007 |
Female | 30.94 (14.56) | 8.03 (4.41) | 10.04 (5.27) | 8.97 (3.42) | 3.88 (4.40) | ||||||
Place of residence | city/town > 250,000 population | 30.85 (15.06) | 0.756 | 7.83 (4.47) | 0.972 | 9.91 (5.33) | 0.893 | 8.99 (3.49) | 0.302 | 4.09 (4.62) | 0.483 |
city/town 50,000–250,000 population | 30.26 (14.29) | 7.80 (4.29) | 9.78 (5.19) | 9.00 (3.45) | 3.69 (4.24) | ||||||
city/town of up to 50,000 population | 30.10 (13.95) | 8.06 (4.79) | 10.01 (5.35) | 8.71 (3.22) | 3.30 (3.71) | ||||||
countryside | 28.71 (13.21) | 7.59 (3.89) | 9.51 (5.02) | 8.23 (3.08) | 3.39 (4.00) | ||||||
Marital status | married | 29.30 (14.22) | <0.001 | 7.80 (4.44) | 0.120 | 9.62 (5.20) | 0.185 | 8.63 (3.30) | 0.006 | 3.24 (3.90) | <0.001 |
in a romantic relationship | 32.55 (15.25) | 7.91 (4.40) | 10.81 (5.49) | 9.28 (3.47) | 4.55 (4.84) | ||||||
divorced | 24.25 (8.13) | 7.35 (3.71) | 7.80 (5.36) | 6.90 (2.42) | 2.15 (2.32) | ||||||
widowed | 39.00 (9.42) | 9.85 (1.95) | 13.00 (4.16) | 11.00 (3.11) | 5.14 (4.22) | ||||||
solitude | 32.32 (15.11) | 7.77 (4.43) | 9.74 (5.07) | 9.44 (3.68) | 5.38 (5.12) | ||||||
Restriction on earning opportunities | Yes, I lost my job | 43.85 (15.90) | 0.005 | 10.43 (4.36) | 0.009 | 12.71 (5.76) | 0.006 | 12.71 (4.07) | 0.004 | 8.00 (5.60) | 0.047 |
Yes, a decrease in income ≥25% | 35.80 (15.89) | 9.23 (4.85) | 11.74 (5.32) | 10.21 (3.91) | 4.60 (5.30) | ||||||
Yes, a decrease in income ≤25% | 35.85 (18.24) | 9.37 (5.04) | 11.61 (6.18) | 9.78 (3.71) | 5.09 (5.55) | ||||||
Yes, income has remained unchanged | 28.60 (12.60) | 7.58 (3.98) | 9.42 (5.17) | 8.28 (2.89) | 3.33 (3.42) | ||||||
No | 29.71 (14.21) | 7.69 (4.36) | 9.68 (5.17) | 8.72 (3.36) | 3.63 (4.22) | ||||||
I didn’t work before or during the pandemic | 28.32 (12.02) | 6.11 (3.19) | 8.18 (4.65) | 9.00 (2.86) | 5.04 (4.48) | ||||||
Psychiatrist/psychologist services during the pandemic | Yes | 41.45 (13.80) | <0.001 | 10.85 (4.49) | <0.001 | 13.59 (5.22) | <0.001 | 10.53 (3.39) | <0.001 | 6.46 (5.45) | <0.001 |
No | 29.47 (14.25) | 7.58 (4.30) | 9.54 (4.10) | 8.72 (3.37) | 3.60 (4.18) | ||||||
The use of psychiatric medications | Yes | 34.82 (15.78) | <0.001 | 9.20 (4.27) | <0.001 | 11.08 (5.24) | <0.001 | 9.45 (3.71) | 0.022 | 5.08 (5.24) | <0.001 |
No | 29.18 (13.95) | 7.46 (4.27) | 9.52 (5.21) | 8.70 (3.42) | 3.49 (4.04) | ||||||
Past psychiatric treatment | Yes | 34.78 (15.72) | <0.001 | 9.22 (4.67) | <0.001 | 10.86 (5.17) | 0.006 | 9.52 (3.82) | 0.015 | 5.13 (5.23) | <0.001 |
No | 29.26 (14.02) | 7.48 (4.26) | 9.59 (5.25) | 8.69 (3.27) | 3.49 (3.49) | ||||||
Chronic conditions, e.g., heart disease, lung disease | Yes | 34.78 (15.72) | 0.010 | 9.22 (4.67) | 0.004 | 10.86 (5.25) | 0.074 | 9.54 (3.82) | 0.019 | 5.13 (5.23) | 0.115 |
No | 29.26 (14.02) | 7.48 (4.26) | 9.59 (5.17) | 8.69 (3.27) | 3.49 (4.06) | ||||||
Being under quarantine | Yes, I am under quarantine | 32.80 (15.08) | 0.355 | 10.09 (4.93) | 0.007 | 10.05 (5.65) | 0.467 | 9.44 (3.03) | 0.396 | 3.22 (4.10) | 0.279 |
Yes, I was under quarantine | 29.39 (14.11) | 7.63 (4.24) | 9.40 (5.15) | 8.78 (3.25) | 3.58 (4.34) | ||||||
No | 30.47 (14.61) | 7.73 (4.37) | 9.96 (5.26) | 8.84 (3.47) | 3.92 (4.38) | ||||||
Recovering from COVID-19 | Yes, I’m undergoing recovery from COVID-19 | 34.21 (14.58) | 0.129 | 11.39 (4.90) | <0.001 | 10.26 (5.98) | 0.749 | 9.65 (3.17) | 0.075 | 2.91 (3.44) | 0.180 |
Yes, I recovered from COVID-19 | 29.64 (15.17) | 7.95 (4.60) | 9.64 (5.53) | 8.52 (3.51) | 3.52 (4.27) | ||||||
No | 30.21 (14.39) | 7.56 (4.22) | 9.85 (5.16) | 8.86 (3.39) | 3.92 (4.42) | ||||||
COVID-19 confirmed in a family member/close friend | Yes | 30.79 (14.83) | 0.076 | 8.05 (4.37) | 0.002 | 9.97 (5.21) | 0.161 | 8.92 (3.46) | 0.301 | 3.83 (4.35) | 0.363 |
No | 28.79 (14.60) | 7.03 (4.38) | 9.39 (5.39) | 8.64 (3.17) | 3.74 (4.44) | ||||||
COVID-19-related death | Yes, a family member | 34.93 (15.45) | 0.101 | 9.14 (4.56) | 0.063 | 10.53 (5.41) | 0.105 | 9.70 (3.01) | 0.021 | 5.53 (5.38) | 0.051 |
Yes, in a close friend | 30.75 (14.81) | 8.21 (4.49) | 10.62 (5.12) | 8.58 (3.69) | 3.32 (3.93) | ||||||
No | 29.99 (14.38) | 7.67 (4.35) | 9.65 (5.26) | 8.86 (3.36) | 3.80 (4.35) | ||||||
Information retrieval | Yes | 31.10 (14.24) | <0.001 | 8.12 (4.39) | <0.001 | 10.23 (5.18) | <0.001 | 8.98 (3.41) | 0.020 | 3.75 (4.20) | 0.684 |
No | 27.90 (15.14) | 6.84 (4.28) | 8.59 (5.31) | 8.46 (3.53) | 4.00 (4.82) | ||||||
Statistics tracking | Yes | 31.16 (14.38) | 0.009 | 8.10 (4.45) | 0.010 | 10.25 (5.17) | <0.001 | 8.94 (3.43) | 0.191 | 3.85 (4.26) | 0.180 |
No | 28.72 (14.71) | 7.27 (4.24) | 9.01 (5.33) | 8.69 (3.34) | 3.72 (4.55) |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Babicki, M.; Szewczykowska, I.; Mastalerz-Migas, A. The Mental Well-Being of Health Care Workers during the Peak of the COVID-19 Pandemic—A Nationwide Study in Poland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6101. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18116101
Babicki M, Szewczykowska I, Mastalerz-Migas A. The Mental Well-Being of Health Care Workers during the Peak of the COVID-19 Pandemic—A Nationwide Study in Poland. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(11):6101. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18116101
Chicago/Turabian StyleBabicki, Mateusz, Ilona Szewczykowska, and Agnieszka Mastalerz-Migas. 2021. "The Mental Well-Being of Health Care Workers during the Peak of the COVID-19 Pandemic—A Nationwide Study in Poland" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 11: 6101. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18116101