A Cross-Cultural Study of Distress during COVID-19 Pandemic: Some Protective and Risk Factors
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Risk and Protective Factors during COVID-19
3. COVID-19 in Italy, Serbia, and Romania
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Participants
4.2. Procedure
4.3. Measures
5. Results
6. Predicting Distress during COVID-19 Pandemic
7. Discussion
8. Conclusions
9. Limitations of This Study
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Χ2 | df | p | CFI | RMSEA | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Configural | 736.703 | 201 | <0.001 | 0.920 | 0.085 |
Metric | 661.429 | 209 | <0.001 | 0.932 | 0.077 |
Scalar | 1215.682 | 225 | <0.001 | 0.852 | 0.112 |
Δχ2 | Δdf | p | ΔCFI | ΔRMSEA | |
Metric vs. Configural | 0.012 | −0.008 | |||
Scalar vs. Metric | 554.253 | 16 | <0.001 | −0.080 | 0.035 |
Scalar vs. Configural | 478.979 | 24 | <0.001 | −0.068 | 0.027 |
Italy | Serbia | Romania | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | α | M | SD | α | M | SD | α | |
1. Distress | 2.73 a | 0.84 | 0.87 | 2.61 a | 0.90 | 0.87 | 2.35 b | 0.83 | 0.88 |
2. Fear from COVID-19 | 2.90 a | 1.00 | 0.90 | 2.46 b | 1.01 | 0.89 | 3.30 c | 1.06 | 0.89 |
3. Widespread COVID-19 | 2.22 a | 0.77 | - | 1.73 b | 0.98 | - | 2.76 c | 1.14 | - |
4. Tendency to worry | 2.96 a | 0.88 | 0.90 | 2.93 a | 0.98 | 0.91 | 2.52 b | 0.99 | 0.93 |
5. Social support from family | 3.60 a | 1.16 | - | 3.68 a | 1.12 | - | 4.10 b | 0.85 | - |
6. Social support from friends | 3.53 a | 1.11 | - | 3.36 b | 1.06 | - | 3.24 b | 0.98 | - |
7. Household climate | 1.98 a | 0.79 | 0.69 | 2.00 a | 0.93 | 0.80 | 1.91 a | 0.65 | 0.33 |
8. Economic difficulties | 3.13 a | 0.82 | - | 3.05 a | 0.72 | 2.82 b | 0.83 | - | |
9. Age | 29.44 a | 14.07 | - | 29.29 a | 14.37 | - | 31.47 b | 10.71 | - |
10. Trust in institutions | 3.10 a | 0.93 | 0.73 | 2.57 b | 1.02 | 0.80 | 2.71 b | 0.98 | 0.77 |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Distress | - | |||||||||
2. Fear from COVID-19 | ||||||||||
Italy | 0.45 ** | - | ||||||||
Serbia | 0.37 ** | - | ||||||||
Romania | 0.50 ** | - | ||||||||
3. Tendency to worry | ||||||||||
Italy | 0.66 ** | 0.41 ** | - | |||||||
Serbia | 0.61 ** | 0.33 ** | - | |||||||
Romania | 0.74 ** | 0.32 ** | - | |||||||
4. Social support from family | ||||||||||
Italy | 0.02 | 0.22 ** | 0.08 | - | ||||||
Serbia | −0.16 ** | 0.03 | 0.02 | - | ||||||
Romania | −0.16 ** | −0.02 | −0.07 | - | ||||||
5. Social support from friends | ||||||||||
Italy | 0.00 | 0.14 ** | 0.02 | 0.43 ** | - | |||||
Serbia | −0.11 | 0.10 | 0.01 | 0.52 ** | - | |||||
Romania | −0.07 | 0.09 | −0.02 | 0.47 | - | |||||
6. Negative household climate | ||||||||||
Italy | 0.16 ** | 0.09 * | 0.20 ** | −0.06 | −0.13 ** | - | ||||
Serbia | 0.31 * | 0.12 * | 0.24 ** | −0.20 ** | −0.18 ** | - | ||||
Romania | 0.12 * | 0.03 | 0.13 * | −0.10 | −0.10 | - | ||||
7. Estimation of COVID-19 widespread in district | ||||||||||
Italy | 0.07 | 0.20 ** | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.03 | - | |||
Serbia | 0.10 | 0.15 ** | 0.03 | 0.01 | −0.03 | 0.06 | - | |||
Romania | 0.13 * | 0.25 ** | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.03 | - | |||
8. Economic difficulties | ||||||||||
Italy | 0.14 ** | 0.07 | 0.06 | −0.05 | −0.14 ** | 0.10 * | 0.10 * | - | ||
Serbia | 0.28 ** | 0.04 | 0.14 * | −0.17 ** | −0.27 ** | 0.16 ** | −0.06 | - | ||
Romania | 0.16 ** | −0.01 | 0.12 * | −0.07 | −0.16 ** | 0.07 | −0.01 | - | ||
9. Age | ||||||||||
Italy | −0.17 ** | −0.06 | −0.20 ** | −0.00 | −0.23 ** | −0.20 | −0.04 | −0.01 | - | |
Serbia | −0.19 ** | −0.12 | −0.17 ** | −0.08 | −0.11 | −0.09 | −0.08 | 0.17 ** | - | |
Romania | −0.18 ** | −0.02 | −0.30 ** | −0.22 ** | −0.12 | −0.21 ** | −0.03 | 0.06 | - | |
10. Gender | ||||||||||
Italy | 0.24 ** | 0.18 ** | 0.18 ** | −0.03 | 0.08 | −0.02 | 0.02 | 0.01 | −0.09 | - |
Serbia | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.07 | −0.16 ** | 0.02 | −0.11 | −0.23 ** | - |
Romania | 0.21 ** | 0.16 ** | 0.21 ** | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.12 * | −0.09 | - |
11. Level of education | ||||||||||
Italy | −0.09 | −0.00 | −0.11 | 0.01 | −0.06 | −0.13 ** | 0.13 ** | −0.13 | 0.38 ** | −0.06 |
Serbia | −0.19 ** | −0.06 | −0.12 * | 0.09 | 0.04 | −0.13 * | 0.05 | −0.14 * | 0.28 ** | −0.06 |
Romania | −0.04 | 0.09 | −0.07 | 0.04 | 0.08 | −0.07 | 0.20 ** | −0.15 * | 0.23 ** | −0.03 |
12. Marital status | ||||||||||
Italy | −0.10 * | −0.01 | −0.13 * | 0.09 | −0.12 * | −0.14 * | −0.01 | −0.02 | 0.61 ** | 0.21 ** |
Serbia | −0.15 * | −0.05 | −0.17 ** | −0.08 | −0.12 * | −0.18 ** | 0.10 * | 0.07 | 0.69 ** | 0.25 ** |
Romania | −0.19 ** | −0.07 | −0.27 ** | 0.01 | −0.01 | −0.08 | 0.01 | −0.03 | 0.41 ** | 0.14 * |
13. Having been distant from family | ||||||||||
Italy | −0.03 | −0.03 | −0.04 | 0.05 | −0.14 * | −0.14 * | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.36 ** | −0.03 |
Serbia | −0.06 | −0.01 | −0.04 | 0.12 * | −0.09 | −0.04 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.19 * | −0.05 |
Romania | 0.09 | 0.12 * | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.05 | −0.03 | 0.10 | 0.05 | 0.02 | −0.12 * |
14. Trust in institutions | ||||||||||
Italy | 0.10 * | 0.12 * | 0.17 ** | 0.20 ** | −0.05 | −0.02 | −0.14 * | −05 | −0.07 | 0.02 |
Serbia | −0.04 | 0.14 * | 0.05 | 0.12 * | 0.28 | −0.07 | 0.01 | −0.22 | 0.0.01 | −0.05 |
Romania | 0.02 | 0.29 ** | −0.05 | 0.11 | 0.21 ** | −0.01 | 0.04 | −0.21 ** | −0.03 | −0.05 |
STEP1 | Italy | Serbia | Romania | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | t | p | β | t | p | β | t | p | |
Gender | 0.09 | 2.55 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.87 | n.s. | 0.04 | 1.18 | n.s. |
Age | −0.13 | −2.69 | 0.007 | −0.07 | −1.14 | n.s. | −0.01 | −0.23 | n.s. |
Level of education | −0.01 | −0.01 | n.s. | −0.07 | −1.41 | n.s. | −0.03 | −0.71 | n.s. |
Marital status | −0.01 | −0.04 | n.s. | 0.01 | 0.10 | n.s. | −0.02 | −0.42 | n.s. |
Economic difficulties | 0.10 | 2.97 | 0.002 | 0.15 | 3.27 | 0.001 | 0.06 | 1.58 | n.s. |
WidespreadCOVID-19 | −0.01 | −0.10 | n.s. | 0.05 | 1.20 | n.s. | 0.02 | 0.44 | n.s. |
Fear of COVID-19 | 0.20 | 5.18 | 0.001 | 0.16 | 3.42 | 0.001 | 0.35 | 7.88 | 0.001 |
Social support from family | −0.05 | −1.18 | n.s. | −0.10 | −1.90 | 0.05 | −0.12 | −2.81 | 0.005 |
Social support from friends | −0.02 | −0.52 | n.s. | −0.02 | −0.39 | n.s. | −0.03 | −0.74 | n.s. |
Household climate | 0.02 | 0.54 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 2.25 | 0.03 | −0.01 | −0.24 | n.s. |
Being distant from family | 0.02 | 0.66 | n.s. | −0.03 | −0.70 | n.s. | 0.04 | 0.97 | n.s. |
Trust in governmental institutions | −0.01 | −0.21 | n.s. | −0.04 | −0.88 | n.s. | 0.01 | 0.14 | n.s. |
Tendency to worry | 0.52 | 13.55 | 0.001 | 0.48 | 10.08 | 0.001 | 0.59 | 14.11 | 0.001 |
Widespread COVID-19 × fear | −0.06 | −1.58 | n.s. | 0.04 | 0.67 | n.s. | 0.07 | 1.63 | n.s. |
Widespread COVID-19 × worry | 0.01 | 0.31 | n.s. | 0.02 | 0.42 | n.s. | −0.02 | −0.40 | n.s. |
Widespread COVID-19 × Support family | −0.01 | −0.04 | n.s. | −0.08 | −1.47 | n.s. | −0.01 | −0.21 | n.s. |
Widespread COVID-19 × support friends | −0.02 | −0.32 | n.s. | 0.05 | 0.88 | n.s. | 0.02 | 0.42 | n.s. |
Widespread COVID-19 × trust | −0.04 | −1.17 | n.s. | 0.05 | 0.98 | n.s. | −0.03 | −0.86 | n.s. |
Fear of COVID-19 × worry | 0.08 | 2.26 | 0.02 | 0.12 | 2.83 | 0.005 | 0.08 | 2.19 | 0.03 |
Fear of COVID-19 × support family | −0.10 | −2.72 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.21 | n.s. | 0.08 | 1.88 | n.s. |
Fear of COVID-19 × support friends | 0.05 | 1.37 | n.s. | −0.02 | −0.38 | n.s. | −0.06 | −1.44 | n.s. |
Fear of COVID-19 × trust | −0.02 | −0.41 | n.s. | −0.05 | −0.98 | n.s. | 0.05 | 1.36 | n.s. |
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Kosic, A.; Džamonja Ignjatović, T.; Petrović, N. A Cross-Cultural Study of Distress during COVID-19 Pandemic: Some Protective and Risk Factors. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7261. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147261
Kosic A, Džamonja Ignjatović T, Petrović N. A Cross-Cultural Study of Distress during COVID-19 Pandemic: Some Protective and Risk Factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(14):7261. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147261
Chicago/Turabian StyleKosic, Ankica, Tamara Džamonja Ignjatović, and Nebojša Petrović. 2021. "A Cross-Cultural Study of Distress during COVID-19 Pandemic: Some Protective and Risk Factors" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 14: 7261. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147261