Different Risk Factors for Erosive Tooth Wear in Rural and Urban Nepal: A National Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Questionnaire
2.2. Clinical Oral Examination and Anthropometric Measurements
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Location (%) | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
Urban (n = 606) | Rural (n = 531) | ||
Age | |||
5–6 years old | 28.5 | 31.5 | 0.170 |
12 years old | 35.3 | 37.7 | |
15 years old | 36.1 | 30.9 | |
Gender | |||
Boys | 50.8 | 54.4 | 0.225 |
Girls | 49.2 | 45.6 | |
School types | |||
Public | 50.7 | 72.3 | <0.001 |
Private | 49.3 | 27.7 | |
Ethnic group | |||
Brahman and Chhetri | 47.7 | 49.9 | <0.001 |
Tarai Madeshi and Muslim | 12.4 | 0.9 | |
Dalit | 8.7 | 9.8 | |
Janajati and Newar | 31.2 | 39.4 | |
Fizzy drinks consumption | |||
Never | 8.6 | 14.4 | <0.001 |
Seldom | 61.6 | 70.5 | |
Frequent | 29.8 | 15.1 | |
Fruits consumption | |||
Never | 1.2 | 2.6 | <0.001 |
Seldom | 41.9 | 63.3 | |
Frequent | 56.9 | 34.1 | |
Toothbrushing frequency | |||
Once daily or less | 79.1 | 80.6 | 0.569 |
Twice daily or more | 20.9 | 19.4 | |
Use of toothpaste | |||
Yes | 99.3 | 97.4 | 0.012 |
No | 0.7 | 2.6 | |
Use of charcoal | |||
Yes | 6.0 | 8.3 | 0.159 |
No | 94.0 | 91.7 | |
Use of miswak | |||
Yes | 10.2 | 6.3 | 0.027 |
No | 89.8 | 93.7 | |
Body mass index | |||
Low | 11.6 | 13.8 | 0.355 |
Normal | 79.2 | 78.7 | |
High | 9.3 | 7.5 | |
Waist–Hip ratio | |||
Normal | 71.0 | 62.0 | 0.001 |
Obese | 29.0 | 38.0 | |
Waist–Height ratio | |||
Normal | 93.9 | 87.6 | <0.001 |
Obese | 6.1 | 12.4 | |
BEWE score | |||
Score 0 | 36.6 | 33.5 | 0.273 |
Score ≥1 | 63.4 | 66.5 |
Characteristics | BEWE Sum Scores (%) | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Score 0 (n = 400) | Score 1–2 (n = 517) | Score ≥ 3 (n = 220) | ||
Age | ||||
5–6 years old | 36.2 | 38.2 | 25.6 | <0.001 |
12 years old | 36.5 | 44.4 | 19.1 | |
15 years old | 32.9 | 53.0 | 14.1 | |
Gender | ||||
Boys | 36.2 | 44.4 | 19.4 | 0.710 |
Girls | 34.1 | 46.7 | 19.3 | |
Location | ||||
Urban | 36.6 | 49.3 | 14.0 | <0.001 |
Rural | 33.5 | 41.1 | 25.4 | |
School type | ||||
Public | 31.5 | 45.9 | 22.6 | <0.001 |
Private | 40.8 | 44.8 | 14.3 | |
Ethnic group | ||||
Brahman and Chhetri | 33.9 | 44.8 | 21.3 | 0.035 |
Tarai Madeshi and Muslim | 26.3 | 53.8 | 20.0 | |
Dalit | 28.6 | 47.6 | 23.8 | |
Janajati and Newar | 40.5 | 44.2 | 15.3 | |
Fizzy drinks consumption | ||||
Never | 30.2 | 49.1 | 20.7 | 0.494 |
Seldom | 35.6 | 46.6 | 17.8 | |
Frequent | 39.3 | 42.1 | 18.6 | |
Fruits consumption | ||||
Never | 21.1 | 63.3 | 15.8 | 0.006 |
Seldom | 31.9 | 50.5 | 17.6 | |
Frequent | 40.7 | 40.1 | 19.1 | |
Toothbrushing frequency | ||||
Once daily or less | 35.7 | 45.4 | 18.8 | 0.660 |
Twice daily or more | 36.2 | 47.6 | 16.2 | |
Use of toothpaste | ||||
Yes | 35.7 | 46.1 | 18.2 | 0.487 |
No | 43.8 | 31.3 | 25.0 | |
Use of charcoal | ||||
Yes | 21.9 | 45.2 | 32.9 | 0.001 |
No | 36.8 | 46.0 | 17.2 | |
Use of miswak | ||||
Yes | 21.6 | 58.0 | 20.5 | 0.013 |
No | 37.2 | 44.7 | 18.1 | |
Body mass index | ||||
Low | 33.6 | 46.2 | 20.3 | 0.830 |
Normal | 34.8 | 45.8 | 19.4 | |
High | 40.6 | 41.7 | 17.7 | |
Waist–Hip ratio | ||||
Normal | 35.4 | 48.4 | 16.2 | <0.001 |
Obese | 34.7 | 39.7 | 25.7 | |
Waist–Height ratio | ||||
Normal | 35.8 | 45.4 | 18.9 | 0.268 |
Obese | 29.1 | 46.6 | 24.3 | |
Total | 35.2 | 45.5 | 19.3 |
Explanatory Variables | Model 1 UOR (95% CI) | Model 2 OR (95% CI) | Model 3 OR (95% CI) | Model 4 OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age | ||||
5–6 years old | 2.30 (1.54–3.45) ** | 2.01 (1.18–3.45) * | - | - |
12 years old | 1.36 (0.92–2.02) | 1.33 (0.89–1.99) | - | - |
15 years old | 1 | 1 | - | - |
Gender | ||||
Boys | 0.96 (0.70–1.30) | - | - | - |
Girls | 1 | - | - | - |
Location | ||||
Urban | 0.53 (0.32–0.87) * | 0.57 (0.34–0.93) * | - | - |
Rural | 1 | 1 | - | - |
School types | ||||
Private | 0.53 (0.30–0.93) * | 0.49 (0.29–0.83) * | 0.38 (0.18–0.80) * | 0.43 (0.18–1.04) |
Public | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Ethnic group | ||||
Brahman and Chhetri | 1.10 (0.72–1.68) | 1.13 (0.74–1.74) | 0.77 (0.40–1.43) | 2.04 (1.10–3.78) * |
Tarai Madeshi and Muslim | 0.93 (0.44–1.97) | 1.07 (0.50–2.31) | 0.95 (0.39–2.31) | 1.34 (0.13–13.96) |
Dalit | 1.34 (0.77–2.34) | 1.20 (0.66–2.18) | 1.55 (0.65–3.69) | 1.05 (0.44–2.52) |
Janajati and Newar | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Fizzy drinks consumption | ||||
Frequent | 1.17 (0.80–1.73) | - | 1.98 (1.15–3.49) * | 0.41 (0.19–0.89) * |
Never and seldom | 1 | - | 1 | 1 |
Fruits consumption | ||||
Frequent | 1.34 (0.96–1.88) | 1.43 (1.01–2.03) * | 2.01 (1.11–3.63) * | 0.93 (0.57–1.53) |
Never and seldom | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Toothbrushing frequency | ||||
Once daily or less | 1.18 (0.77–1.80) | - | - | - |
Twice daily or more | 1 | - | - | - |
Use of toothpaste | ||||
Yes | 0.95 (0.29–3.12) | - | 0.65 (0.06–7.55) | 1.25 (0.30–5.15) |
No | 1 | - | 1 | 1 |
Use of charcoal | ||||
Yes | 1.88 (1.08–3.27) * | 2.16 (1.20–3.85) * | - | - |
No | 1 | 1 | - | - |
Use of miswak | ||||
Yes | 1.04 (0.59–1.84) | 1.07 (0.58–1.96) | 1.12 (0.50–2.49) | 1.20 (0.49–2.97) |
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Body mass index | ||||
Low | 0.78 (0.49–1.24) | - | - | - |
High | 1.09 (0.62–1.93) | - | - | - |
Normal | 1 | - | - | - |
Waist–Hip ratio | ||||
Obese | 1.76 (1.28–2.42) * | 1.35 (0.89–2.06) | 2.56 (1.47–4.47) * | 1.02 (0.60–1.73) |
Normal | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Waist–Height ratio | ||||
Obese | 1.37 (0.82–2.29) | - | 1.96 (0.77–4.96) | 1.38 (0.58–3.30) |
Normal | 1 | - | 1 | 1 |
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Karki, S.; Alaraudanjoki, V.; Päkkilä, J.; Laitala, M.-L.; Anttonen, V. Different Risk Factors for Erosive Tooth Wear in Rural and Urban Nepal: A National Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7766. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157766
Karki S, Alaraudanjoki V, Päkkilä J, Laitala M-L, Anttonen V. Different Risk Factors for Erosive Tooth Wear in Rural and Urban Nepal: A National Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(15):7766. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157766
Chicago/Turabian StyleKarki, Saujanya, Viivi Alaraudanjoki, Jari Päkkilä, Marja-Liisa Laitala, and Vuokko Anttonen. 2021. "Different Risk Factors for Erosive Tooth Wear in Rural and Urban Nepal: A National Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 15: 7766. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157766
APA StyleKarki, S., Alaraudanjoki, V., Päkkilä, J., Laitala, M. -L., & Anttonen, V. (2021). Different Risk Factors for Erosive Tooth Wear in Rural and Urban Nepal: A National Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(15), 7766. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157766