Long-Term Residential Exposure to Particulate Matter and Its Components, Nitrogen Dioxide and Ozone—A Northern Sweden Cohort Study on Mortality
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods and Materials
2.1. Study Participants
2.2. Mortality Outcomes
2.3. Exposure Assessment
2.3.1. Model Evaluation
2.3.2. Individual Exposures
2.4. Confounders
2.5. Statistical Methods
3. Results
3.1. Participant Characteristics
3.2. Particle Concentrations
3.3. Associations with Mortality
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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All | In Tertiles of PM2.5 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
<4.36 µg/m3 | 4.36–4.81 µg/m3 | >4.81 µg/m3 | |||
Participants (n) | 43,216 | 14,261 | 14,261 | 14,694 | |
Women | 52% | 50% | 52% | 53% | |
BMI (kg/m2; mean ± sd) | 25.5 (4.1) | 26.0 (4.4) | 25.4 (4.0) | 25.1 (3.9) | |
Smoking status | Current smoker | 20% | 15% | 21% | 25% |
Former smoker | 30% | 28% | 31% | 30% | |
Never smoker | 49% | 56% | 47% | 44% | |
Missing data | 1% | 1% | 1% | 2% | |
Leisure time physical activity | Sedentary | 36% | 33% | 38% | 37% |
Moderate | 42% | 37% | 42% | 45% | |
Intermediate and vigorous | 21% | 28% | 19% | 16% | |
Missing data | 2% | 2% | 1% | 2% | |
Alcohol consumption | Daily | 1% | 1% | 1% | 1% |
Weekly | 16% | 17% | 18% | 14% | |
Seldom | 42% | 48% | 46% | 33% | |
Never | 2% | 3% | 1% | 0% | |
Missing data | 39% | 31% | 34% | 52% | |
Low fruit intake | Yes | 5% | 7% | 4% | 3% |
Missing | 15% | 3% | 9% | 34% | |
Low vegetable intake | Yes | 4% | 5% | 4% | 4% |
Missing | 16% | 4% | 10% | 34% | |
Married/living with partner | Yes | 76% | 78% | 77% | 75% |
Missing data | 1% | 1% | 1% | 1% | |
Education level | Primary school or less | 31% | 21% | 33% | 38% |
Up to secondary school or equivalent | 30% | 35% | 29% | 25% | |
University degree and more | 39% | 43% | 38% | 36% | |
Missing data | 1% | 1% | 1% | 1% | |
Occupation | Gainfully employed | 85% | 87% | 85% | 83% |
Unemployed/not gainfully employed | 6% | 6% | 6% | 7% | |
Retired | 4% | 5% | 5% | 3% | |
Missing data | 4% | 2% | 4% | 7% |
Mean (sd) | Median (1st Quartile–3rd Quartile) | IQR | |
---|---|---|---|
PM2.5 | 4.90 (1.92) | 4.55 (3.81–5.14) | 1.33 |
NO2 | 7.09 (3.49) | 6.63 (4.82–8.79) | 3.97 |
BC/pOC | 0.66 (0.25) | 0.62 (0.54–0.71) | 0.17 |
O3 | 50.76 (3.27) | 50.93 (48.96–52.92) | 3.96 |
SIA | 1.67 (0.43) | 1.73 (1.33–1.87) | 0.54 |
SOA | 0.23 (0.05) | 0.23 (0.20–0.26) | 0.06 |
SS | 1.02 (0.12) | 1.00 (0.95–1.12) | 0.17 |
dust | 1.32 (1.54) | 0.98 (0.73–1.29) | 0.56 |
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Sommar, J.N.; Hvidtfeldt, U.A.; Geels, C.; Frohn, L.M.; Brandt, J.; Christensen, J.H.; Raaschou-Nielsen, O.; Forsberg, B. Long-Term Residential Exposure to Particulate Matter and Its Components, Nitrogen Dioxide and Ozone—A Northern Sweden Cohort Study on Mortality. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 8476. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168476
Sommar JN, Hvidtfeldt UA, Geels C, Frohn LM, Brandt J, Christensen JH, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Forsberg B. Long-Term Residential Exposure to Particulate Matter and Its Components, Nitrogen Dioxide and Ozone—A Northern Sweden Cohort Study on Mortality. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(16):8476. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168476
Chicago/Turabian StyleSommar, Johan N., Ulla A. Hvidtfeldt, Camilla Geels, Lise M. Frohn, Jørgen Brandt, Jesper H. Christensen, Ole Raaschou-Nielsen, and Bertil Forsberg. 2021. "Long-Term Residential Exposure to Particulate Matter and Its Components, Nitrogen Dioxide and Ozone—A Northern Sweden Cohort Study on Mortality" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 16: 8476. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168476