1. Introduction
The role that housing plays in the aging process and health is widely recognized [
1,
2]. Several studies [
3,
4,
5] indicate a complex interplay between housing and health in older adults. These studies show the objective and subjective aspect of the housing, (arquitectonic–environmental barriers or perceptions), are related to mobility problems, depressive symptoms and life satisfaction. Older adults who perceive a good home accessibility tend to achieve higher wellbeing and fewer depressive symptoms [
3].
The house and its nearby environment host most of the daily activities of older adults, and this circumstance increases progressively with age. In old age, people spend more time at home, making it the anchor point of their activities. Therefore, housing is a central element in the daily life of older adults [
6,
7,
8,
9]. In this sense, it is very important to know which factors influence older adults’ satisfaction with their home. The objective of this study is to analyze the factors that develop the perception of residential satisfaction (RS) in active older adults.
Traditionally, the study of RS has been relegated to physical issues such as accessibility that have captured most of the attention and initiatives aimed at providing older adults with adequate housing [
4,
10,
11]. However, RS is a more complex concept than solving functional or accessibility issues [
12]. Related RS to accessibility means reducing this satisfaction to the mere resolution of impediments or architectural obstacles in the house itself. In this way, the social and psychological processes related to the physical space of the house are not considered. In this sense, the concept of “home” represents these psychological aspects as opposed to the concept of “house”. House refers to a structure of a residential space, a building, a house, rooms, etc. where people live. However, home is a symbolic place built with personal meanings that change over time [
13]. Research that focuses on the objective and physical characteristics of housing forgets the importance of perceived experiences in the relationship of the home and well-being in old age [
14,
15,
16]. Thus, satisfaction with housing is generated through important psychological links and identification between the person and the home. Knowledge of the physical spaces inside the house ceases to play a major role in the formation of RS. From this point of view, RS is constituted by the subjective perceptions that older people have about housing [
7,
9].
Oswald, Schilling, Wahl, Funge, Sixsmith and Iwarson [
17] underscore a psychological perspective of the home environment. This study was to examine the home environment and its importance in healthy aging. The participants were 1223 older adults aged (80–89 years) and living alone in their private homes in Swedish, British and German urban regions. The result showed that it is the subjective experiences from living in the home itself that constitute what has been called perceived home (PH). The exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis and a structural equation model give empirical support to prove the model of four domains of PH: RS itself, home functionality, meaning and perception of control over the home itself. In addition, several studies [
2,
17,
18] indicate that there is a close relationship between the different domains of PH. As a result, people who obtain a high RS score obtain high scores in perception of functionality, meaning and control over the home itself. The results of these studies indicate that people who have a high PH score develop effective links to their home environment and value home as support for their independent and autonomous life. Therefore, from the psychological perspective offered by PH, home is not only objective and behavioral aspects but also incorporates subjective, cognitive and emotional aspects [
19].
As mentioned above, PH is composed of four perceptions: perception of satisfaction, functionality, meaning and housing control belief (HCB). The perception of home functionality focuses on the relationship between the activities that the person and the home can perform, both in the present and in the future. That is, they are the perceived possibilities of being able to develop in the house both the necessary and preferred activities that comprise the routines of daily life [
20,
21]. The domain of perceived functionality includes elements such as the functional capacity of the person, his/her adaptive and motivational strategies to develop certain activities, the physical barriers of housing and surroundings, and the repertoire of activities developed by a person in his/her home.
Older adults build the perceived meanings of home. Older adults build, in relation to their own home, symbolic representations of space and place. Home is not only a place where objective needs such as protection, support and access are met but also symbolic representations of space and place in relation to their own home represents individual meanings linked to the user’s experience and personality [
15]. The meaning of the perceived home includes elements such as meaningful habits for the person, social contacts, assessments, goals, values, cognitions and emotions of a person regarding their home. That is, the meaning of home for a person describes a wide range of attachment processes that are generated when they develop affective, cognitive, behavioral and social bonds with their home.
HCB is the tension that occurs between what the person wants to do in the house and the pressures of the environment that prevent him/her from carrying them out [
13]. The perception of HCB tries to analyze the explanations that older adults give about the events that happen in their home. These events can be explained based on internal control over them, derived from their own behavior, or they can be explained by external control exercised by other people, luck, destiny, etc.
Several studies [
5,
22] have shown that perceptions of HCB are closely related to maintaining autonomy and independence in everyday life and become increasingly important in old age. From the perspective of environmental gerontology [
13,
23], this autonomy and independence constitute the concept of competence, that is, what older people can do at home and that depends on them. In contrast, there are several demands that converge in the house itself, called the environmental press [
24]. A good fit between a person’s competencies and the demands of the environment is a particularly important challenge in the aging process [
25,
26]. It should be noted that these adjustments between competencies and demands become very unstable because the capacity to adjust may vary ostensibly linked to the aging process itself [
7]. Thus, the perceived HCB in the field of home is the result of the tension that is generated between competition and demand [
27,
28].
Perceptions of HCB offer significant theoretical potential, providing a conceptual link between PE fit and older adults [
22], focuses on the interaction between characteristics of individual and environment. From this perspective, older adults become agents of change in their residential environment. The perception of control recognizes the proactive role of older adults, focusing directly on their agency as an engine of change that can determine not only physical changes in the home but also changes in the rest domains of PH [
9].
We propose that RS is not another element within the perceptions of home but is built on perceptions of functionality, meaning and control over home. It is the final product that develops through the relationship with the domains of PH. The main objective of this study is to analyze how RS is developed from the relationships established between the different domains of PH using a structural equation model. This proposal would incorporate into Oswald’s studies an explanatory model of the role of each PH in the formation of RS.
The hypothesis is that the perception of HCB influences the perception of functionality and meaning of home. Perceived RS would be the final product of the previous PH.
4. Discussion
The RS is built on the perceived experiences about their home, and the objective aspects of the house or its environment are not the determining factors. The empirical model of PH allows us to incorporate these psychological elements into the study of the fit between older adults and their home environment and to better understand how RS is built [
7,
18]. The results obtained in our study show a high perceived RS regardless of gender or age group. This satisfaction is reflected in the physical characteristics of the house, in the perception of safety to develop activities in the house and in the PH change due to the aging process. Older adults are not resistant to change, but quite the opposite; it is important to consider that in the future, their current home may not be the best home solution, and they should be receptive to other proposals that allow them to continue their lifestyle. These data are consistent with the studies of Oswald [
17] and Oswald & Muller [
18], in which they found high perceptions not only in RS but also in domains of PH.
Oswald [
17] showed that RS is interrelated with other domains of PH. Thus, RS is intimately linked to the perception of functionality, meaning and control. The different PHs are interconnected, weaving a model of relationships in which improvements in some perception lead to improvements in the other perceptions.
Beyond these relationships between the different PHs, the main objective of this study was to propose a model of the role that plays each of these perceptions in the formation of RS. According to our hypothesis, the model of structural equations shows that perceived RS is not another element within the PH but develops directly from perceptions of functionality and meaning. The functionality of the house brings environmental, personal and activity components to RS [
20]. The data allow us to observe once again that those perceptions about the material and physical aspects of housing (environmental component), even if they play an important role in satisfaction, are not the only ones. The motivational aspects, the adaptive ability to carry out actions within the home, and the possibility of hosting social relations in it play a major role in final satisfaction [
2,
25]. Similarly, perceptions of emotional significance, the possibility of establishing social relationships at home, and the ability to develop everyday activities are also factors that increase RS.
Different studies [
34,
35] show how perceptions of meaning and functionality are an important factor in fit-e. In this study, we can also observe these perceptions in an integrative model, which allows us to see that functionality and meaning play a role in mediating variables between RS and perceived control.
In this way, perceived HCB occupies a decisive position in the model of structural equations. The RS depends on the type of perceived control over their home. To understand the effects of control perception on RS formation, it is necessary to segregate HCB from external housing-related control beliefs (EHCB) and internal housing-related control beliefs (IHCB), since both have opposite effects on the formation of RS. Increases in IHCB improve the mediating perceptions of functionality and meaning that end up generating RS. When older adults perceive that they control the tension between the demands of the environment and what can be done at home, they feel competent, and they generate an increase in the functionality and meaning of these tensions. The main effect of IHCB is on the perception of functionality, that is, the activities that can be done at home. Older people with a greater sense of competence will make more decisions about what they can do with their home, will be able to engage in more activities in the home, and will have an increased perception of the home’s functionality. Another effect of IHCB is on the meaning of home. Feeling competent about the set of experiences they may develop in the home increases affective, cognitive, and social aspects. Feeling competent and having control over the home is important since in the aging process, older people make the home the place of participation and social relations and they give it greater significance [
36,
37].
The opposite behavior is that generated by EHCB in the structural equation model. When decision-making about the home depends on external factors or other people who are beyond the control of older adults, i.e., other perceptions, RS deteriorates.
In summary, considering perceptions of meaning and usability, RS itself depends on a strong IHCB. Internal control influences everyday activities, and how social relationships are organized at home. When there is a high EHCB, either because decision-making about it is part of the social environment or because of chance, other perceptions deteriorate and therefore RS itself deteriorates.
Based on a high IHCB, older adults are ready for new home solutions. The largest respondents, despite expressing very high rates of satisfaction with the house itself, show a high propensity for change. They are open to changing their home and are open to new housing models in that they perceive that in a few years, they may lose control and autonomy in daily life [
2]. Older adults doubt whether the conditions of the house itself will allow them to develop an autonomous and independent life as their aging process begins to diminish their functional capacities. These new home solutions must start from the basis that older adults are proactive people who participate in their immediate environments in which social relations are prioritized to establish new modes of home life. IHCB predisposes individuals to change as long as they continue to maintain control and autonomy over their lives [
8,
22].
The HCB is the result of the tension between a person’s competencies and the demands of the environment [
26]. Social services could have an important role to play in promoting the IHCB of older people. The intervention should consider the environmental press that converges in the home and reduce this tension. To carry out this task, it is essential to know not only the dwellings conditions of the house but also the beliefs, expectations and subjective perceptions of older people about their home. As a possible result, we would not only improve housing adaptation, but aspects of physical and mental health and well-being can be enhanced. This statement needs further research to provide empirical evidence [
2].
In future research, it would be interesting to analyze PH conditions and their relationship with other variables, such as social support and participation, life satisfaction and/or quality of life. Additionally, in future studies, we should compare the perceptions of older adults living in their own home with those who live in protected residences or flats whose autonomy is more limited. Finally, it would be interesting to conduct research on the four domains studied, functionality, satisfaction, meaning and control over the house itself in older people who are already living in other cohabitation models.
Of course, these findings are subject to limitations. This limitation may be seen in the generalization of the findings in old age. Although we analyzed data of a wide and heterogenous sample (rural–urban, alone–accompanied, etc.), the findings are based on an active older adult sample who attend Third Age universities, educational centers and senior associations. Thus, the present study is limited in its potential to reflect the full range of older adults with chronic diseases or disabilities, non-active older adults or older adults living in institutional settings. Another limitation is a significant gender gap in the sample, which could introduce gender bias in our finding.