Exploring Weight Stigma in Saudi Arabia: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Sampling and Sample Size
2.3. Participant Recruitment
2.4. Survey and Outcome Measures
3. Statistical Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Demographics and Response Rate
4.2. Prevalence of WS
4.3. Associations among WS, Lifestyle, and Basic Nutritional Knowledge
4.4. Associations between WS and Current Weight Management-Related Variables
4.5. Factors Associated with Higher Weight Stigma
5. Discussion
5.1. Results Summary
5.2. WS Prevalence
5.3. WS and Obesity
5.4. WS and Bariatric Surgery
5.5. WS and Waterpipe Smoking
5.6. WS and Nutrition Knowledge
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- National Eating Disorders Association. What Is Weight Stigma? Available online: https://www.Nationaleatingdisorders.Org/Weight-Stigma (accessed on 2 August 2021).
- Puhl, R.M.; Heuer, C.A. Obesity Stigma: Important Considerations For Public Health. Am. J. Public Health 2010, 100, 1019–1028. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Puhl, R.; Brownell, K.D. Bias, Discrimination, And Obesity. Obes. Res. 2001, 9, 788–805. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brownell, K.D.; Puhl, R.M.; Schwartz, M.B.; Rudd, L.E. Weight Bias: Nature, Consequences, And Remedies; Guilford Publications: New York, NY, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Bindhim, N.F.; Althumiri, N.A.; Basyouni, M.H.; Sims, O.T.; Alhusseini, N.; Alqahtani, S.A. Arabic Translation of the Weight Self-Stigma Questionnaire: Instrument Validation Study of Factor Structure and Reliability. JMIR Form. Res. 2020, 4, E24169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meadows, A.; Higgs, S. Internalised Weight Stigma Moderates the Impact of A Stigmatising Prime on Eating in the Absence of Hunger in Higher-But not Lower-Weight Individuals. Front. Psychol. 2019, 10, 1022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pont, S.J.; Puhl, R.; Cook, S.R.; Slusser, W. Stigma Experienced by Children and Adolescents with Obesity. Pediatrics 2017, 140, E20173034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Prunty, A.; Clark, M.K.; Hahn, A.; Edmonds, S.; O’shea, A. Enacted Weight Stigma and Weight Self Stigma Prevalence among 3821 Adults. Obes. Res. Clin. Pract. 2020, 14, 421–427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Al-Quwaidhi, A.; Pearce, M.; Critchley, J.; Sobngwi, E.; O’flaherty, M. Trends and Future Projections of the Prevalence of Adult Obesity in Saudi Arabia, 1992–2022. East. Mediterr. Health J. 2014, 20, 589–595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Musaiger, A.O.; Al-Mannai, M. Association between Exposure to Media and Body Weight Concern among Female University Students in Five Arab Countries: A Preliminary Cross-Cultural Study. J. Biosoc. Sci. 2014, 46, 240–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Khalaf, A.; Westergren, A.; Berggren, V.; Ekblom, Ö.; Al-Hazzaa, H.M. Perceived and Ideal Body Image in Young Women in South Western Saudi Arabia. J. Obes. 2015, 2015, 697163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Al Saud, D.F.; Alhaddab, S.A.; Alhajri, S.M.; Alharbi, N.S.; Aljohar, S.A.; Mortada, E.M. The Association between Body Image, Body Mass Index and Social Media Addiction among Female Students at a Saudi Arabia Public University. Mal. J. Med. Health Sci. 2019, 15, 16–22. [Google Scholar]
- Althumiri, N.A.B.M.; Bindhim, N.F.; Alqahtani, S.A. Levels and Associations of Weight Misperception with Healthy Lifestyle Among Adults in Saudi Arabia. Obes. Facts 2021, 14, 439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alqout, O.; Reynolds, F. Experiences of Obesity among Saudi Arabian Women Contemplating Bariatric Surgery: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. J. Health Psychol. 2014, 19, 664–677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Pearl, R.; Himmelstein, M.; Puhl, R.; Wadden, T.; Wojtanowski, A.; Foster, G. Weight Bias Internalization in a Commercial Weight Management Sample: Prevalence and Correlates. Obes. Sci. Pract. 2019, 5, 342–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Sharik Association for Research and Studies. Sharik Diet and Health National Survey. Available online: https://sharikhealth.com/index.php/2020-02-19-06-59-53/2021-04-14-20-26-02 (accessed on 4 April 2021).
- Z-Datacloud. Available online: https://zdatacloud.com/ (accessed on 12 June 2021).
- Althumiri, N.A.; Basyouni, M.H.; Almousa, N.; Aljuwaysim, M.F.; Bindhim, N.F.; Alqahtani, S.A. Prevalence of Self-Reported Food Allergies and Their Association with Other Health Conditions among Adults in Saudi Arabia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Althumiri, N.A.; Basyouni, M.H.; Almousa, N.; Aljuwaysim, M.F.; Almubark, R.A.; Bindhim, N.F.; Alkhamaali, Z.; Alqahtani, S.A. Obesity in Saudi Arabia in 2020: Prevalence, Distribution, and Its Current Association with Various Health Conditions. Healthcare 2021, 9, 311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1988. [Google Scholar]
- Sharik Association for Health Research. Available online: https://sharikhealth.com (accessed on 4 April 2021).
- Himmelstein, M.S.; Puhl, R.M.; Quinn, D.M. Weight Stigma in Men: What, When, and by Whom? Obesity 2018, 26, 968–976. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Prevention Codca. Nhanes 2017–2018 Questionnaire Instruments; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2017.
- World Health Organization. World Health Survey (Whs) 2003. Available online: https://apps.who.int/healthinfo/systems/surveydata/index.php/catalog/whs/about (accessed on 2 August 2021).
- Al-Qadhi, W.; Ur Rahman, S.; Ferwana, M.S.; Abdulmajeed, I.A. Adult Depression Screening in Saudi Primary Care: Prevalence, Instrument and Cost. BMC Psychiatry 2014, 14, 190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Becker, S.; Al Zaid, K.; Al Faris, E. Screening for Somatization and Depression in Saudi Arabia: A Validation Study of the Phq in Primary Care. Int. J. Psychiatry Med. 2002, 32, 271–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alhadi, A.N.; Alateeq, D.A.; Al-Sharif, E.; Bawazeer, H.M.; Alanazi, H.; Alshomrani, A.T.; Shuqdar, R.M.; Alowaybil, R. An Arabic Translation, Reliability, and Validation of Patient Health Questionnaire in A Saudi Sample. Ann. Gen. Psychiatry 2017, 16, 32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bindhim, N.F.; Althumiri, N.A.; Basyouni, M.H.; Alageel, A.A.; Alghnam, S.; Al-Qunaibet, A.M.; Almubark, R.A.; Aldhukair, S.; Ad-Dab’bagh, Y. A Mental Health Surveillance System for the General Population during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Protocol for A Multiwave Cross-Sectional Survey Study. JMIR Res. Protoc. 2020, 9, E23748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reeves, W.C.; Pratt, L.A.; Thompson, W.; Ahluwalia, I.B.; Dhingra, S.S.; Mcknight-Eily, L.R.; Harrison, L.; D’angelo, D.V.; Williams, L.; Morrow, B.; et al. Mental Illness Surveillance Among Adults in the United States; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2011.
- Bindhim, N.F.; Althumiri, N.A.; Basyouni, M.H.; Alageel, A.A.; Alghnam, S.; Al-Qunaibet, A.M.; Almubarak, R.A.; Aldhukair, S.; Ad-Dab’bagh, Y. Saudi Arabia Mental Health Surveillance System (Mhss): Mental Health Trends amid COVID-19 and Comparison with Pre-COVID-19 Trends. Eur. J. Psychotraumatol. 2021, 12, 1875642. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- General Authority for Statistics. Census Report 2017. Available online: https://www.stats.gov.sa/ar/5655 (accessed on 6 June 2021).
- Von Elm, E.; Altman, D.G.; Egger, M.; Pocock, S.J.; Gøtzsche, P.C.; Vandenbroucke, J.P. Strobe Initiative. The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (Strobe) Statement: Guidelines for Reporting Observational Studies. Int. J. Surg. 2014, 12, 1495–1499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Puhl, R.M.; Himmelstein, M.S.; Quinn, D.M. Internalizing Weight Stigma: Prevalence and Sociodemographic Considerations in US Adults. Obesity 2018, 26, 167–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Raves, D.M.; Brewis, A.; Trainer, S.; Han, S.-Y.; Wutich, A. Bariatric Surgery Patients’ Perceptions of Weight-Related Stigma in Healthcare Settings Impair Post-Surgery Dietary Adherence. Front. Psychol. 2016, 7, 1497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Black, M.J.; Sokol, N.; Vartanian, L.R. The Effect of Effort and Weight Controllability on Perceptions of Obese Individuals. J. Soc. Psychol. 2014, 154, 515–526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Quick, V.M.; Byrd-Bredbenner, C. Disordered Eating, Socio-Cultural Media Influencers, Body Image, and Psychological Factors among A Racially/Ethnically Diverse Population of College Women. Eat. Behav. 2014, 15, 37–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bbc. Many of Us Suspect that the Beautiful, often Highly-Edited Images of People We See on Social Media Make Us Feel Worse about Our Own Bodies. But What Does the Research Say? 2018. Available online: Https://Www.Bbc.Com/Future/Article/20190311-How-Social-Media-Affects-Body-Image (accessed on 2 August 2021).
- Burns, M.; Gavey, N. ‘Healthy Weight’at What Cost? ‘Bulimia’ and a Discourse of Weight Control. J. Health Psychol. 2004, 9, 549–565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Fardouly, J.; Vartanian, L.R. Changes in Weight Bias Following Weight Loss: The Impact of Weight-Loss Method. Int. J. Obes. 2012, 36, 314–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Vartanian, L.R.; Fardouly, J. The Stigma of Obesity Surgery: Negative Evaluations Based on Weight Loss History. Obes. Surg. 2013, 23, 1545–1550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Richardson, W.S.; Plaisance, A.M.; Periou, L.; Buquoi, J.; Tillery, D. Long-Term Management of Patients after Weight Loss Surgery. Ochsner J. 2009, 9, 154–159. [Google Scholar]
- Sarwer, D.B.; Wadden, T.A.; Fabricatore, A.N. Psychosocial and Behavioral Aspects of Bariatric Surgery. Obes. Res. 2005, 13, 639–648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Douglas, M.; Katikireddi, S.V.; Taulbut, M.; Mckee, M.; Mccartney, G. Mitigating the Wider Health Effects of COVID-19 Pandemic Response. BMJ 2020, 369, M1557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Baalbaki, R.; Itani, L.; El Kebbi, L.; Dehni, R.; Abbas, N.; Farsakouri, R.; Awad, D.; Tannir, H.; Kreidieh, D.; El Masri, D.; et al. Association between Smoking Hookahs (Shishas) and Higher Risk of Obesity: A Systematic Review of Population-Based Studies. J. Cardiovasc. Dev. Dis. 2019, 6, 23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ward, K.D.; Ahn, S.; Mzayek, F.; Al Ali, R.; Rastam, S.; Asfar, T.; Fouad, F.; Maziak, W. The Relationship between Waterpipe Smoking and Body Weight: Population-Based Findings From Syria. Nicotine Tob. Res. 2015, 17, 34–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Wardle, J.; Parmenter, K.; Waller, J. Nutrition Knowledge and Food Intake. Appetite 2000, 34, 269–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Demographic Characteristics | Female n (%) | Male n (%) | Total n (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Age Group | |||
18–19 | 120 (47.1) | 135 (52.9) | 255 (5.4) |
20–29 | 827 (53.1) | 729 (46.9) | 1556 (33.0) |
30–39 | 469 (46.5) | 540 (53.5) | 1009 (21.4) |
40–49 | 577 (55.3) | 467 (44.7) | 1044 (22.2) |
50–59 | 260 (46.8) | 295 (53.2) | 555 (11.8) |
60+ | 105 (36.2) | 185 (63.8) | 290 (6.2) |
Region | |||
Aljouf | 180 (49.9) | 181 (50.1) | 361 (7.7) |
Northern Borders | 181 (50.1) | 180 (49.9) | 361 (7.7) |
Tabuk | 182 (50.3) | 180 (49.7) | 362 (7.7) |
Hail | 179 (49.9) | 180 (50.1) | 359 (7.6) |
Madinah | 184 (50.3) | 182 (49.7) | 366 (7.8) |
Qassim | 181 (50.1) | 180 (49.9) | 361 (7.7) |
Makkah | 181 (50.3) | 181 (50.0) | 362 (7.7) |
Riyadh | 183 (50.3) | 181 (49.7) | 364 (7.7) |
Eastern Region | 180 (50.0) | 180 (50.0) | 360 (7.6) |
Baha | 181 (49.7) | 183 (50.3) | 364 (7.7) |
Asir | 184 (50.3) | 182 (49.7) | 366 (7.8) |
Jazan | 181 (50.1) | 180 (49.9) | 361 (7.7) |
Najran | 181 (50.0) | 181 (50.0) | 362 (7.7) |
Sex | |||
Female | - | - | 2358 (50.1) |
Male | - | - | 2351 (49.9) |
Educational Level | |||
High School or Less | 894 (49.9) | 899 (50.1) | 1973 (38.1) |
Undergraduate Diploma | 238 (41.2) | 339 (58.8) | 577 (12.3) |
Bachelor’s Degree | 1145 (54.5) | 957 (45.5) | 2102 (44.6) |
Postgraduate Degree (Master’s/PhD) | 80 (33.9) | 156 (66.1) | 236 (5.0) |
Variable | Lower WS * n (%) | Higher WS n (%) | Chi-Square p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Sex | |||
Male | 1351 (57.5) | 1000 (42.5) | <0.001 |
Female | 1174 (49.8) | 1184 (50.2) | |
Age Group | |||
18–19 | 135 (52.9) | 120 (47.1) | 0.023 |
20–29 | 859 (55.2) | 697 (44.8) | |
30–39 | 554 (54.9) | 455 (45.1) | |
40–49 | 510 (48.9) | 534 (51.1) | |
50–59 | 303 (54.6) | 252 (45.4) | |
60+ | 164 (56.6) | 126 (43.4) | |
Region | |||
Jouf | 199 (55.1) | 162 (44.9) | <0.001 |
Northern Border | 165 (45.7) | 196 (54.3) | |
Tabuk | 193 (53.3) | 169 (46.7) | |
Hail | 223 (62.1) | 136 (37.0) | |
Madinah | 206 (56.3) | 160 (43.7) | |
Qassim | 213 (59.0) | 148 (41.0) | |
Riyadh | 185 (3.9) | 179 (49.2) | |
Eastern Region | 196 (54.4) | 164 (45.6) | |
Baha | 205 (56.3) | 159 (43.7) | |
Asir | 181 (49.5) | 185 (50.5) | |
Jazan | 212 (58.7) | 149 (41.3) | |
Najran | 160 (44.2) | 202 (55.8) | |
Education Level | |||
High School or Less | 966 (53.9) | 827 (46.1) | 0.591 |
Undergraduate Diploma | 308 (53.4) | 269 (46.6) | |
Bachelor’s Degree | 1114 (53.0) | 988 (47.0) | |
Postgraduate Degree (Master’s/PhD) | 136 (57.6) | 100 (42.4) |
Variable | Lower WS n (%) | Higher WS n (%) | Chi-Square p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Overall Health | |||
Great | 795 (61.1) | 507 (38.9) | <0.001 |
Very Good | 902 (54.7) | 748 (45.3) | |
Good | 526 (49.3) | 540 (50.7) | |
Normal | 265 (44.7) | 328 (55.3) | |
Bad | 37 (37.8) | 61 (62.2) | |
Trouble Sleeping | |||
Yes | 1023 (46.4) | 1161 (53.2) | <0.001 |
No | 1502 (59.5) | 1023 (40.5) | |
Risk of Depression | |||
Yes | 196 (35.4) | 357 (64.6) | <0.001 |
No | 2329 (56.0) | 1827 (44.0) | |
Sedentary Lifestyle | |||
1–2 h | 455 (62.4) | 274 (37.6) | <0.001 |
3–4 h | 655 (54.0) | 557 (46.0) | |
5–6 h | 623 (52.1) | 572 (47.9) | |
More than 6 | 791 (50.3) | 781 (49.7) | |
Smoking Cigarette | |||
Daily Smoker | 227 (53.9) | 237 (46.1) | 0.017 |
Occasional (Social) Smoker | 129 (45.4) | 115 (54.6) | |
Nonsmoker | 2118 (54.2) | 1792 (45.8) | |
Smoking Waterpipe | |||
Daily Smoker | 96 (55.8) | 76 (44.2) | 0.005 |
Occasional (Social) Smoker | 184 (45.9) | 217 (54.1) | |
Nonsmoker | 2244 (54.3) | 1981 (45.7) | |
Nutritional Knowledge Score | |||
0 out of 4 | 974 (50.4) | 960 (49.6) | 0.001 |
1 out of 4 | 515 (54.2) | 436 (45.8) | |
2 out of 4 | 500 (58.8) | 351 (41.2) | |
3 out of 4 | 359 (55.0) | 294 (45.0) | |
4 out of 4 | 177 (55.3) | 143 (44.7) |
Variable | Lower WS n (%) | Higher WS n (%) | Chi-Square p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
BMI Category * | |||
Underweight | 189 (66.8) | 94 (33.2) | <0.001 |
Normal | 1331 (67.5) | 641 (32.5) | |
Overweight | 682 (47.7) | 749 (52.3) | |
Obese | 323 (31.6) | 700 (68.4) | |
Weight Misclassification | |||
No | 1516 (55.5) | 1217 (44.5) | 0.003 |
Yes | 1009 (51.1) | 967 (48.9) | |
Current Weight Management Action | |||
Lose Weight | 720 (38.5) | 1149 (61.5) | >0.001 |
Manage the Current Weight | 722 (70.1) | 308 (29.9) | |
Gain Weight | 217 (59.3) | 149 (40.7) | |
Nothing | 866 (60.0) | 578 (40.0) | |
Received Doctor Advice About Your Weight | |||
Yes | 308 (35.4) | 563 (64.6) | <0.001 |
No | 2216 (56.8) | 1621 (42.2) | |
Had Bariatric Surgery | |||
Yes | 77 (28.5) | 193(71.5) | <0.001 |
No | 2448 (55.1) | 1991 (44.9) |
Variable | Df | Sig. | Odds Ratio | 95% C.I. for EXP (B) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | ||||
Age | 1 | 0.000 | 0.989 | 0.984 | 0.994 |
Region $ | 12 | 0.000 | |||
Jouf | 1 | 0.183 | 1.247 | 0.901 | 1.727 |
Northern Border * | 1 | 0.000 | 1.980 | 1.431 | 2.739 |
Tabuk * | 1 | 0.029 | 1.432 | 1.037 | 1.977 |
Madinah | 1 | 0.145 | 1.274 | 0.920 | 1.764 |
Qassim | 1 | 0.454 | 1.132 | 0.819 | 1.565 |
Macca * | 1 | 0.036 | 1.413 | 1.022 | 1.954 |
Riyadh * | 1 | 0.042 | 1.400 | 1.013 | 1.936 |
Eastern Region | 1 | 0.086 | 1.331 | 0.961 | 1.845 |
Baha * | 1 | 0.047 | 1.391 | 1.005 | 1.925 |
Asir * | 1 | 0.001 | 1.695 | 1.227 | 2.342 |
Jazan | 1 | 0.163 | 1.263 | 0.910 | 1.754 |
Najran * | 1 | 0.000 | 2.119 | 1.529 | 2.938 |
Overall Health (with Bad as the reference category) | 4 | 0.004 | |||
Great | 1 | 0.200 | 0.732 | 0.454 | 1.180 |
Very Good | 1 | 0.446 | 0.833 | 0.521 | 1.332 |
Good | 1 | 0.760 | 0.929 | 0.579 | 1.490 |
Normal | 1 | 0.616 | 1.131 | 0.699 | 1.833 |
Trouble Sleeping (Yes) * | 1 | 0.000 | 1.371 | 1.199 | 1.567 |
Sedentary Lifestyle (with 1–2 h as the reference category) | 3 | 0.000 | |||
3–4 h * | 1 | 0.000 | 1.511 | 1.229 | 1.858 |
5–6 h * | 1 | 0.000 | 1.500 | 1.218 | 1.848 |
More than 6 * | 1 | 0.000 | 1.527 | 1.246 | 1.871 |
Smoking Waterpipe (with Nonsmoker as the reference category) | 2 | 0.013 | |||
Daily Smoker * | 1 | 0.004 | 1.803 | 1.208 | 2.691 |
Occasional (Social) Smoker * | 1 | 0.043 | 1.429 | 1.012 | 2.018 |
Nutritional Knowledge Score (with 0 out of 4 as the reference category) | 4 | 0.000 | |||
1 out of 4 * | 1 | 0.005 | 0.782 | 0.659 | 0.929 |
2 out of 4 * | 1 | 0.000 | 0.614 | 0.511 | 0.737 |
3 out of 4 * | 1 | 0.042 | 0.813 | 0.665 | 0.993 |
4 out of 4 * | 1 | 0.021 | 0.734 | 0.563 | 0.955 |
BMI Categories (with Underweight as the reference category) | 3 | 0.000 | |||
Normal | 1 | 0.194 | 1.211 | 0.907 | 1.618 |
Overweight * | 1 | 0.000 | 2.372 | 1.740 | 3.232 |
Obese * | 1 | 0.000 | 3.930 | 2.837 | 5.444 |
Current Weight Management Action (with Nothing as the reference category) | 3 | 0.000 | |||
Lose Weight * | 1 | 0.000 | 1.756 | 1.496 | 2.062 |
Manage the Current Weight * | 1 | 0.002 | 0.747 | 0.621 | 0.897 |
Gain Weight | 1 | 0.161 | 1.205 | 0.928 | 1.565 |
Doctor Advice About Your Weight (Yes) * | 1 | 0.000 | 1.553 | 1.305 | 1.849 |
Had Bariatric Surgery (Yes) * | 1 | 0.000 | 2.075 | 1.529 | 2.815 |
Risk of Depression (At Risk) * | 1 | 0.000 | 1.683 | 1.358 | 2.087 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Althumiri, N.A.; Basyouni, M.H.; AlMousa, N.; AlJuwaysim, M.F.; Alhamdan, A.A.; Al-Qahtani, F.S.; BinDhim, N.F.; Alqahtani, S.A. Exploring Weight Stigma in Saudi Arabia: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9141. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179141
Althumiri NA, Basyouni MH, AlMousa N, AlJuwaysim MF, Alhamdan AA, Al-Qahtani FS, BinDhim NF, Alqahtani SA. Exploring Weight Stigma in Saudi Arabia: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(17):9141. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179141
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlthumiri, Nora A., Mada H. Basyouni, Norah AlMousa, Mohammed F. AlJuwaysim, Adel A. Alhamdan, Faisal Saeed Al-Qahtani, Nasser F. BinDhim, and Saleh A. Alqahtani. 2021. "Exploring Weight Stigma in Saudi Arabia: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 17: 9141. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179141