Estimating Occupational Exposure to VOCs, SVOCs, Particles and Participant Survey Reported Symptoms in Central Thailand Rice Farmers Using Multiple Sampling Techniques
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Study Design
2.3. Participants
2.4. Materials and Methods
2.4.1. Questionnaire
2.4.2. Air Sampling Instruments
- Absorbent tube. NIOSH method #1501 was employed for VOC sampling and analysis [30]. Each personal sampling pump—SKC 224-PCXR8 with a representative sampler, 100 mg/50 mg coconut shell charcoal tube, in line was calibrated to obtain the flow rate of 0.2 L/min. The sampler equipment was attached to the farmer’s clothing in their breathing zone as shown in Figure 2. The air sampling was run while the farmer worked on their tasks, recalibration was conducted immediately after the air sampling ended, and the average flow rate before and after air collection was used for concentration calculation. The samples were capped and packed for shipment to the laboratory, where they were stored in the refrigerator at 4 °C until analysis within 30 days of sampling.
- Solid-Phase Micro-Extraction (SPME). The SPME, a passive but quick and universal sampling technique, does not require a pump or the use of organic solvents for analyte extraction and is used for the determination of various classes of pesticides and other VOCs and SVOCs in aqueous media or in other samples [31]. It is sensitive and convenient for field or laboratory use since equilibrium is quickly attained by adjusting factors including temperature, fiber type and exposure time, volume of sample, salt concentration, pH, and agitation [32]. For this study a 50/30 µm Divinylbenzene/Carboxen/Polydimethylsiloxane (DVB/CAR/PDMS), StableFlex/SS (2 cm), Manual Holder, gray fiber (SUPELCO, PA) fiber was used. The Solid-Phase Micro-Extraction (SPME) samples were placed beside farmers when in a sitting position while working and was exposed to the air beside the farmer’s working area, as shown in Figure 3. At the completion of sampling, the SPME fiber was retracted into the needle, putting the top of the fiber and the tip of the needle at the same position. The SPME fiber was stored in a glass tube with plastic caps and packed for shipment. All samples were then transported from the field by the researchers.
2.4.3. Air Sample Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Age (years old) | ||
<30 | 2 | 6.7 |
31–40 | 3 | 10.0 |
41–50 | 10 | 33.3 |
51–60 | 9 | 30.0 |
>60 | 6 | 20.0 |
Min = 23 Max = 78 | ||
Mean + SD: 50 + 12.7 | ||
Education | ||
None | 1 | 3.3 |
Primary School | 17 | 56.7 |
Secondary School | 6 | 20.0 |
High School | 5 | 16.7 |
Bachelor’s Degree and above | 1 | 3.3 |
Family income (Baht/Year) | ||
<50,000 | 5 | 16.7 |
50,001–100,000 | 14 | 46.6 |
100,000–150,000 | 6 | 20.0 |
>150,000 | 5 | 16.7 |
Smoking | ||
Never | 6 | 20.0 |
Used to smoke | 7 | 23.3 |
Currently smoking | 17 | 56.7 |
Congenital or underlying disease | ||
Yes | 13 | 43.3 |
No | 17 | 56.7 |
Currently on any medication | ||
Yes | 9 | 30.0 |
No | 21 | 70.0 |
Agriculture experiences (Year(s)) | ||
<10 | 11 | 36.7 |
11–20 | 7 | 23.3 |
21–30 | 6 | 20.0 |
>30 | 6 | 20.0 |
Years using mechanical applications (Year(s)) | ||
Tractor | ||
<10 | 12 | 40.0 |
11–20 | 8 | 26.7 |
21–30 | 6 | 20.0 |
>30 | 4 | 13.3 |
Mechanical knapsack sprayer | ||
<10 | 12 | 40.0 |
11–20 | 9 | 30.0 |
21–30 | 5 | 16.7 |
>30 | 4 | 13.3 |
Characteristics | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Farm area (rai(s)) | ||
<10 | 17 | 56.7 |
11–20 | 6 | 20.0 |
21–30 | 2 | 6.6 |
>30 | 5 | 16.7 |
(1 rai = 1600 square meters) | ||
Duration of working (h/time) | ||
Land preparation | ||
<1 | - | - |
1–2 | 14 | 46.7 |
>2 | 16 | 53.3 |
Pesticide spraying | ||
<1 | 30 | 100.0 |
1–2 | - | - |
>2 | - | - |
Harvest | ||
<1 | - | - |
1–2 | 26 | 86.7 |
>2 | 4 | 13.3 |
Number of annual mechanical applications (time(s)/Year) | ||
Tractor | ||
<10 | 13 | 43.3 |
11–20 | 13 | 43.3 |
21–30 | 3 | 10.0 |
>30 | 1 | 3.3 |
Mechanical backpack sprayer | ||
<10 | 7 | 23.3 |
11–20 | 12 | 40.0 |
21–30 | 2 | 6.6 |
>30 | 9 | 30.0 |
Handling and work practice | ||
Follows all product instructions | 27 | 90.0 |
Checks tools before use | 30 | 100.0 |
Prepares mechanical applications at home | 26 | 86.7 |
Stores mechanical applicators at home | 26 | 86.7 |
Cleans spraying equipment after work | 29 | 96.7 |
Takes a meal at work place | 12 | 40.0 |
Smokes while applying pesticides | 6 | 20.0 |
Considers the safety period | 28 | 93.3 |
PPE usage | ||
Gloves | ||
Rubber | 26 | 86.7 |
Fabric | 26 | 86.7 |
Long | 26 | 86.7 |
Short | 26 | 86.7 |
Mask | 26 | 86.7 |
Boots | 24 | 80.0 |
Hat | 29 | 96.7 |
Short sleeved shirt | 5 | 16.7 |
Long sleeved shirt | 29 | 96.7 |
Short sleeved pants | 2 | 6.6 |
Long sleeved Pants | 28 | 93.3 |
Activities | Chemicals | Concentration | OEL |
---|---|---|---|
Land preparation (n = 30) | Methlylene Chloride | ≤10% at OEL | PEL = 25 ppm [34] |
1, 1, 1 Trichloro Ethane | TWA = 350 ppm a | ||
Benzene | TWA = 1 ppm [35] | ||
Ethylbenzene | TWA = 100 ppm a | ||
o-Xylene | TWA = 100 ppm a | ||
m-Xylene | TWA = 100 ppm a | ||
p-Xylene | TWA = 100 ppm a | ||
Styrene | TWA = 50 ppm a | ||
1-Methyl Ethyl Benzene | TWA = 50 ppm [36] | ||
1, 3, 5-Trimethyl Benzene | TWA = 25 ppm [37] | ||
1, 4-Dichloro Benzene | TWA = 75 ppm a | ||
Naphthalene | ≤50% at OEL | TWA = 10 ppm [38] | |
Tert-Butyl Benzene | No occupational exposure limits a | ||
1-Methyl Propyle Benzene | |||
1, 2, 3 Trichloro Benzene | |||
Pesticide application (n = 30) | Methlylene Chloride | ≤10% at OEL | PEL = 25 ppm [34] |
1, 1, 1 Trichloro Ethane | TWA = 350 ppm a | ||
Ethylbenzene | TWA = 100 ppm a | ||
o-Xylene | TWA = 100 ppm a | ||
m-Xylene | TWA = 100 ppm a | ||
p-Xylene | TWA = 100 ppm a | ||
Styrene | TWA = 50 ppm a | ||
1-Methyl Ethyl Benzene | TWA = 50 ppm [36] | ||
1, 3, 5-Trimethyl Benzene | TWA = 25 ppm [37] | ||
Naphthalene | ≤50% at OEL | TWA = 10 ppm [38] | |
Tert-Buty1 Benzene | No occupational exposure limits a | ||
1-Methyl Propyle Benzene | |||
1, 2, 3 Trichloro Benzene | |||
Harvesting (n = 30) | 1, 1, 1 Trichloro Ethane | ≤10% at OEL | TWA = 350 ppm a |
Ethylbenzene | TWA = 100 ppm a | ||
o-Xylene | TWA = 100 ppm a | ||
m-Xylene | TWA = 100 ppm a | ||
p-Xylene | TWA = 100 ppm a | ||
1-Methyl Ethyl Benzene | TWA = 50 ppm [36] | ||
1, 3, 5-Trimethyl Benzene | TWA = 25 ppm [37] | ||
Naphthalene | ≤50% at OEL | TWA = 10 ppm [38] | |
Tert-Butyl Benzene | No occupational exposure limits a | ||
1-Methyl Propyle Benzene | |||
1, 2, 3 Trichloro Benzene |
SPME Samples | |||
---|---|---|---|
Activities | Chemicals | Charcoal Tube Found | Comparison to Charcoal Tube Concentration |
Pesticide application (n = 3) | 1, 2 Dichloro Ethaene | ND | |
Methlylene Chloride | Detected | Higher | |
Trichloro Methane | ND | ||
Toluene | ND | ||
Dibromo Chloro Methane | ND | ||
1, 2 Dibromo Ethane | ND | ||
Ethylbenzene | Detected | Higher | |
o-Xylene | Detected | Lower | |
m-Xylene | Detected | Lower | |
p-Xylene | Detected | Higher | |
Styrene | Detected | Higher | |
1-Methyl Ethyl Benzene | Detected | Higher | |
1-Chloro-2-Methy-lBenzene | ND | ||
1, 3, 5-Trimethyl Benzene | Detected | Higher | |
1, 3-Dichloro Benzene | ND | ||
1, 4-Dichloro Benzene | Detected | Lower | |
1, 3, 5 Trichloro Benzene | ND | ||
1, 3 Dichloro Propane | ND | ||
1, 2 Dibromo-3-Chloro Propane | ND | ||
Propyl Benzene | ND | ||
1-Chloro-3-Methyl-Benzene | ND | ||
1-Ethyl-3-Methyl Benzene | ND | ||
Tert-Butyl Benzene | Detected | Lower | |
1-Methyl Propyle Benzene | Detected | Lower | |
Butyl Benzene | ND | ||
Harvesting (n = 1) | Methlylene Chloride | ND | |
1, 2 Dichloro Propane | ND | ||
Toluene | ND | ||
Ethylbenzene | Detected | Higher | |
o-Xylene | Detected | Lower | |
m-Xylene | Detected | Lower | |
p-Xylene | Detected | Higher | |
Stylene | Detected | Higher | |
1, 3, 5-Trimethyl Benzene | Detected | Higher | |
1, 3 Dichloro Propane | ND | ||
Propyl Benzene | ND | ||
1-Chloro1-3-Methyl-Benzene | ND |
Farming Activities | No. of Sample | Percent Measurable | Avg. Respirable Dust Conc. (Range) (mg/m3) |
---|---|---|---|
Land preparation | 30 | 73.3% | 0.03 (0.00–0.34) |
Pesticide application | 30 | 13.3% | 0.00 (0.00–0.09) |
Harvesting | 30 | 100% | 0.49 (0.04–1.83) |
Symptoms | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Skin Symptoms | ||
Skin rash/itching/burning | 6 | 20.0 |
Tingling/numbness of hands | 9 | 30.0 |
muscular twitching and cramps | 8 | 26.7 |
Respiratory Symptoms | ||
Chest pain | 4 | 13.3 |
Cough | 13 | 43.3 |
Running nose | 13 | 43.3 |
Difficulties in breathing | 12 | 40.0 |
Shortness of breath | 7 | 23.3 |
Irritation of the throat | 12 | 40.0 |
Central Nervous System Symptoms | ||
Excessive sweating | 9 | 30.0 |
Nausea | 15 | 50.0 |
Vomiting/Dizziness | 6 | 20.0 |
Excessive salivation | 2 | 6.7 |
Abdominal pain/Stomachache | 4 | 13.3 |
Headache | 13 | 43.3 |
Eye Symptoms | ||
Lacrimation | 10 | 33.3 |
Irritation | 13 | 43.3 |
Blurred Vision | 10 | 33.3 |
Neuro Muscular Symptoms | ||
Difficulty in seeing | 6 | 20.0 |
Restlessness | 9 | 30.0 |
Difficulty in failing asleep | 6 | 20.0 |
Trembling of hands | 5 | 16.7 |
Irritability | 6 | 20.0 |
Anxiety/anxiousness | 5 | 16.7 |
Memory Problems | 6 | 20.0 |
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Norkaew, S.; Phanprasit, W.; Robson, M.G.; Woskie, S.; Buckley, B.T. Estimating Occupational Exposure to VOCs, SVOCs, Particles and Participant Survey Reported Symptoms in Central Thailand Rice Farmers Using Multiple Sampling Techniques. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9288. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179288
Norkaew S, Phanprasit W, Robson MG, Woskie S, Buckley BT. Estimating Occupational Exposure to VOCs, SVOCs, Particles and Participant Survey Reported Symptoms in Central Thailand Rice Farmers Using Multiple Sampling Techniques. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(17):9288. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179288
Chicago/Turabian StyleNorkaew, Saowanee, Wantanee Phanprasit, Mark Gregory Robson, Susan Woskie, and Brian T. Buckley. 2021. "Estimating Occupational Exposure to VOCs, SVOCs, Particles and Participant Survey Reported Symptoms in Central Thailand Rice Farmers Using Multiple Sampling Techniques" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 17: 9288. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179288