The Effect of Perceived Supervisor–Subordinate Congruence in Honesty on Emotional Exhaustion: A Polynomial Regression Analysis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Background and Research Hypotheses
2.1. Person–Supervisor Fit
2.2. Honesty Factor and Emotional Exhaustion
3. Research Methodology
3.1. Survey Method and Respondent Demographics
3.2. Measurement Items
3.2.1. Honesty
3.2.2. Emotional Exhaustion
3.2.3. Control Variables
3.3. Analysis Method
4. Results
5. Discussion
5.1. Theoretical Contribution
5.2. Practical Implications
5.3. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
- I would not engage in flattering my supervisor even if it helped me get a promotion or a raise.
- I would steal a few ten million won if I was sure I would not get caught.
- Making a lot of money is not a high priority in my life.
- I feel that I deserve more respect than the average person.
- I try to please people, even if I hate it, if I need something from them.
- I do not accept bribes, however big or small.
- I wish to own expensive luxury goods.
- I want others to treat me like an important, high-status person.
- I do not pretend to like someone in order to ask them a favor.
- I would be tempted to use counterfeit bills as long as it’s guaranteed that I will not be caught.
- My supervisor would not engage in flattering his/her supervisor even if it helped him/her get a promotion or a raise.
- My supervisor would steal a few 10 million won if he/she was sure he/she would not get caught.
- My supervisor would think that making a lot of money is not a high priority in his/her life.
- My supervisor feels that he/she deserves more respect than the average person.
- My supervisor tries to please people, even if he/she hates it, if he/she needs something from them.
- My supervisor does not accept bribes, however big or small.
- My supervisor wishes to own expensive luxury goods.
- My supervisor wants others to treat him/her like an important, high-status person.
- My supervisor does not pretend to like someone in order to ask them a favor.
- My supervisor would be tempted to use counterfeit bills as long as it’s guaranteed that he/she will not be caught.
- I feel emotionally drained from my work.
- I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and have to face another day on the job.
- I feel frustrated by my job.
- I feel I’m working too hard on my job.
- I feel like I’m at the end of my rope.
References
- Elm, D.R. Honesty, spirituality, and performance at work. In Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance; Giacalone, R.A., Jurkiewicz, C.L., Eds.; M.E. Sharpe: Armonk, NY, USA, 2003; pp. 277–288. [Google Scholar]
- De Vries, R.E.; Van Gelder, J.L. Explaining workplace delinquency: The role of Honesty–Humility, ethical culture, and employee surveillance. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2015, 86, 112–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wiltshire, J.; Bourdage, J.S.; Lee, K. Honesty-humility and perceptions of organizational politics in predicting workplace outcomes. J. Bus. Psychol. 2014, 29, 235–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sackett, P.R.; Wanek, J.E. New developments in the use of measures of honesty integrity, conscientiousness, dependability trustworthiness, and reliability for personnel selection. Pers. Psychol. 1996, 49, 787–829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morgeson, F.P.; Campion, M.A.; Dipboye, R.L.; Hollenbeck, J.R.; Murphy, K.; Schmitt, N. Reconsidering the use of personality tests in personnel selection contexts. Pers. Psychol. 2007, 60, 683–729. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Engle, E.M.; Lord, R.G. Implicit theories, self-schemas, and leader-member exchange. Acad. Manag. J. 1997, 40, 988–1010. [Google Scholar]
- Graen, G.B.; Scandura, T.A. Toward a Psychology of Dyadic Organizing. Res. Organ. Behav. 1987, 9, 175–208. [Google Scholar]
- Opoku, M.A.; Choi, S.B.; Kang, S.-W. Servant Leadership and Innovative Behaviour: An Empirical Analysis of Ghana’s Manufacturing Sector. Sustainability 2019, 11, 6273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Litzky, B.E.; Eddleston, K.A.; Kidder, D.L. The good, the bad, and the misguided: How managers inadvertently encourage deviant behaviors. Acad. Manag. Perspect. 2006, 20, 91–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zettler, I.; Hilbig, B.E.; Heydasch, T. Two sides of one coin: Honesty-Humility and situational factors mutually shape social dilemma decision making. J. Res. Personal. 2013, 47, 286–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zoghbi-Manrique-de-Lara, P.; Viera-Armas, M. Using Alienation at Work to Explain Why Managers’ Dishonesty Does Not Lead to Firm Performance. Eur. Manag. Rev. 2019, 16, 273–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kirkland, J.C. Effect of Honest and Humble Leadership on Sales Outcome. Ph.D. Dissertation, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Anand, A.; Walsh, I.; Moffett, S. Does humility facilitate knowledge sharing? Investigating the role of humble knowledge inquiry and response. J. Knowl. Manag. 2019, 23, 1218–1244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, Y.; Berry, C.M.; Gonzalez-Mulé, E. The importance of being humble: A meta-analysis and incremental validity analysis of the relationship between honesty-humility and job performance. J. Appl. Psychol. 2019, 104, 1535–1546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thompson, M.; Carlson, D.; Hunter, E.; Whitten, D. We all seek revenge: The role of honesty-humility in reactions to incivility. J. Behav. Appl. Manag. 2016, 17, 50–65. [Google Scholar]
- Ashton, M.C.; Lee, K. A theoretical basis for the major dimensions of personality. Eur. J. Personal. 2001, 15, 327–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kristof-Brown, A.L.; Zimmerman, R.D.; Johnson, E.C. Consequences of Individuals’ fit at Work: A Meta-Analysis of Person-Job, Person-Organization, Person-Group, and Person-Supervisor Fit. Pers. Psychol. 2005, 58, 281–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goodman, S.A.; Svyantek, D.J. Person–organization fit and contextual performance: Do shared values matter. J. Vocat. Behav. 1999, 55, 254–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silva, N.; Thoman, A.; Mayoral, L.; Yoshida, M. Organizational Strategy and Employee Outcomes. In Proceedings of the 17th Annual Conference of the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Toronto, AB, Canada, 12–14 April 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Choi, M.O.; Yoo, T.Y. The Effects of Person-Organization, Person-Job, and Person-Supervisor Fit on Organization Commitment, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intention: The Focus on Interaction Effects among Three Types of Fit. Korean J. Ind. Organ. Psychol. 2005, 18, 139–162. [Google Scholar]
- Ravlin, E.C.; Ritchie, C.M. Perceived and actual organizational fit: Multiple influences on attitudes. J. Manag. Issues 2006, 18, 175–192. [Google Scholar]
- Yoo, T.-Y.; Hyun, H.-J. Effects of the fit of current-ideal organizational personality and the fit of current-ideal job characteristics on the attitudes toward the organization and the job. Korean Psychol. Assoc. 2003, 16, 201–222. [Google Scholar]
- Autry, C.W.; Daugherty, P.J. Warehouse operations employees: Linking person-organization fit, job satisfaction, and coping responses. J. Bus. Logist. 2003, 24, 171–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Erdogan, B.; Kraimer, M.L.; Liden, R.C. Work value congruence and intrinsic career success: The compensatory roles of leader-member exchange and perceived organizational support. Pers. Psychol. 2004, 57, 305–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lauver, K.J.; Kristof-Brown, A. Distinguishing between employees’ perceptions of person-job and person-organization fit. J. Vocat. Behav. 2001, 59, 454–470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vigoda, E.; Cohen, A. Influence tactics and perceptions of organizational politics: A longitudinal study. J. Bus. Res. 2002, 55, 311–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ortiz-Bonnín, S.; García-Buades, M.E.; Caballer, A.; Zapf, D. Supportive climate and its protective role in the emotion rule dissonance-emotional exhaustion relationship: A multilevel analysis. J. Pers. Psychol. 2016, 15, 125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cordes, C.L.; Dougherty, T.W. A review and an integration of research on job burnout. Acad. Manag. Rev. 1993, 18, 621–656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wesolowski, M.A.; Mossholder, K.W. Relational demography in supervisor-subordinate dyads: Impact on subordinate job satisfaction, burnout, and perceived procedural justice. J. Organ. Behav. Int. J. Ind. Occup. Organ. Psychol. Behav. 1997, 18, 351–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hobfoll, S.E. Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. Am. Psychol. 1989, 44, 513–524. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Demerouti, E.; Bakker, A.B.; Nachreiner, F.; Schaufeli, W.B. The job demands-resources model of burnout. J. Appl. Psychol. 2001, 86, 499–512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Byrne, D.E. The Attraction Paradigm; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1971; Volume 462. [Google Scholar]
- Zucker, L.G. Production of trust: Institutional sources of economic structure, 1840–1920. Res. Organ. Behav. 1986, 8, 53–111. [Google Scholar]
- Colbert, A.E.; Mount, M.K.; Harter, J.K.; Witt, L.A.; Barrick, M.R. Interactive effects of personality and perceptions of the work situation on workplace deviance. J. Appl. Psychol. 2004, 89, 599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schaubroeck, J.; Lam, S.S. How similarity to peers and supervisor influences organizational advancement in different cultures. Acad. Manag. J. 2002, 45, 1120–1136. [Google Scholar]
- Witt, L. Enhancing organizational goal congruence: A solution to organizational politics. J. Appl. Psychol. 1998, 83, 666. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ashton, M.C.; Lee, K.; De Vries, R.E. The HEXACO Honesty-Humility, Agreeableness, and Emotionality factors: A review of research and theory. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 2014, 18, 139–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, K.; Ashton, M.C. Psychometric properties of the HEXACO personality inventory. Multivar. Behav. Res. 2004, 39, 329–358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ashton, M.C.; Lee, K. Empirical, theoretical, and practical advantages of the HEXACO model of personality structure. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 2007, 11, 150–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cropanzano, R.; Rupp, D.E.; Byrne, Z.S. The relationship of emotional exhaustion to work attitudes, job performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. J. Appl. Psychol. 2003, 88, 160–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maslach, C.; Schaufeli, W.B.; Leiter, M.P. Job burnout. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2001, 52, 397–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bennett, R.J.; Robinson, S.L. Development of a measure of workplace deviance. J. Appl. Psychol. 2000, 85, 349–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Edmondson, D.R.; Matthews, L.M.; Ambrose, S.C. A meta-analytic review of emotional exhaustion in a sales context. J. Pers. Sell. Sales Manag. 2019, 39, 275–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kang, S.-W.; Kim, N. An Experimental Study on the Influence of Knowledge Psychological Ownership on Knowledge Withholding Intention-Moderating Effect of Machiavellianism Personality. J. Hum. Resour. Manag. Res. 2019, 26, 97–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gkorezis, P.; Petridou, E.; Krouklidou, T. The detrimental effect of machiavellian leadership on employees’ emotional exhaustion: Organizational cynicism as a mediator. Eur. J. Psychol. 2015, 11, 619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Stradovnik, K.; Stare, J. Correlation between Machiavellian leadership and emotional exhaustion of employees. Leadersh. Organ. Dev. J. 2018, 39, 1037–1050. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, J.; Xiao, S.; Mao, J.; Liu, W. The buffering effect of Machiavellianism on the relationship between role conflict and counterproductive work behavior. Front. Psychol. 2018, 9, 1776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pfattheicher, S.; Böhm, R. Honesty-humility under threat: Self-uncertainty destroys trust among the nice guys. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 2018, 114, 179–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hobfoll, S.E. The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: Advancing conservation of resources theory. Appl. Psychol. 2001, 50, 337–421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hobfoll, S.E.; Halbesleben, J.; Neveu, J.P.; Westman, M. Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2018, 5, 103–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hilbig, B.E.; Zettler, I.; Heydasch, T. Personality, punishment and public goods: Strategic shifts towards cooperation as a matter of dispositional honesty-humility. Eur. J. Personal. 2012, 26, 245–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Z.; Wang, M.O.; Shi, J. Leader-follower congruence in proactive personality and work outcomes: The mediating role of leader-member exchange. Acad. Manag. J. 2012, 55, 111–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- George, J.M.; Jones, G.R. The role of time in theory and theory building. J. Manag. 2000, 26, 657–684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, K.; Ashton, M.C. The H Factor of Personality: Why Some People Are Manipulative, Self-Entitled, Materialistic, and Exploitive—And Why It Matters for Everyone; Wilfrid Laurier University Press: Waterloo, ON, Canada, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Brislin, R.W. Translation and content analysis of oral and written materials. In Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology: Methodology; Allyn and Bacon: Boston, MA, USA, 1980; pp. 389–444. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, K.; Ogunfowora, B.; Ashton, M.C. Personality traits beyond the Big Five: Are they within the HEXACO space? J. Personal. 2005, 73, 1437–1463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Colquitt, J.A.; Rodell, J.B. Justice, trust, and trustworthiness: A longitudinal analysis integrating three theoretical perspectives. Acad. Manag. J. 2011, 54, 1183–1206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kalliath, T.J.; O’Driscoll, M.P.; Gillespie, D.F.; Bluedorn, A.C. A test of the Maslach Burnout Inventory in three samples of healthcare professionals. Work Stress 2000, 14, 35–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Caplan, R.D.; Jones, K.W. Effects of work load, role ambiguity, and type A personality on anxiety, depression, and heart rate. J. Appl. Psychol. 1975, 60, 713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chapman, D.W.; Lowther, M.A. Teachers’ satisfaction with teaching. J. Educ. Res. 1982, 75, 241–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anderson, M.B.G.; Iwanicki, E.F. Teacher motivation and its relationship to burnout. Educ. Adm. Q. 1984, 20, 109–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arricale, F. A Study of Burnout of Counselors in College Counseling Centers; Rutgers University: New Brunswick, NJ, USA, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Edwards, J.R.; Parry, M.E. On the use of polynomial regression equations as an alternative to difference scores in organizational research. Acad. Manag. J. 1993, 36, 1577–1613. [Google Scholar]
- Edwards, J.R.; Rothbard, N.P. Work and family stress and well-being: An examination of person-environment fit in the work and family domains. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 1999, 77, 85–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cole, M.S.; Carter, M.Z.; Zhang, Z. Leader-team congruence in power distance values and team effectiveness: The mediating role of procedural justice climate. J. Appl. Psychol. 2013, 98, 962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cao, J.; Hamori, M. How can employers benefit most from developmental job experiences? The needs-supplies fit perspective. J. Appl. Psychol. 2020, 105, 422–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Edwards, J.R.; Cable, D.M. The value of value congruence. J. Appl. Psychol. 2009, 94, 654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hair, J.; Black, W.; Anderson, R. Multivariate Data Analysis: A Global Perspectives; Pearson Education: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Hu, L.T.; Bentler, P.M. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct. Equ. Modeling Multidiscip. J. 1999, 6, 1–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shin, Y.; Kim, M.S.; Choi, J.N.; Kim, M.; Oh, W.-K. Does leader-follower regulatory fit matter? The role of regulatory fit in followers’ organizational citizenship behavior. J. Manag. 2017, 43, 1211–1233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, N.; Kang, Y.J.; Choi, J.; Sohn, Y.W. The Crossover Effects of Supervisors’ Workaholism on Subordinates’ Turnover Intention: The Mediating Role of Two Types of Job Demands and Emotional Exhaustion. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7742. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Podsakoff, P.M.; MacKenzie, S.B.; Lee, J.-Y.; Podsakoff, N.P. Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psychol. 2003, 88, 879. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maslach, C. Understanding burnout: Definitional issues in analyzing a complex phenomenon. In Job Stress and Burnout; Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1982; pp. 29–40. [Google Scholar]
- Baba, V.V.; Jamal, M.; Tourigny, L. Work and mental health: A decade in Canadian research. Can. Psychol. Psychol. Can. 1998, 39, 94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leiter, M.P. Coping patterns as predictors of burnout: The function of control and escapist coping patterns. J. Organ. Behav. 1991, 12, 123–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Babakus, E.; Cravens, D.W.; Grant, K.; Ingram, T.N.; LaForge, R.W. Investigating the relationships among sales, management control, sales territory design, salesperson performance, and sales organization effectiveness. Int. J. Res. Mark. 1996, 13, 345–363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Measurement Model | χ2 | df | p-Value | CFI | TLI | RMSEA |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Three factor model | 405.84 | 234 | 0.000 | 0.95 | 0.94 | 0.04 |
Variable | Mean | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Age | 37.81 | 7.75 | ||||||
2. Gender | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.36 *** | |||||
3. Job tenure | 6.67 | 5.95 | 0.58 *** | 0.26 *** | ||||
4. Leaders’ honesty | 3.04 | 0.64 | −0.03 | 0.05 | −0.06 | (0.79) | ||
5. Followers’ honesty | 3.46 | 0.51 | 0.09 | −0.05 | 0.11 * | 0.25 *** | (0.68) | |
6. Emotional exhaustion | 3.14 | 0.90 | −0.11 * | −0.07 | −0.07 | −0.12 * | −0.11 * | (0.91) |
Emotional Exhaustion | ||
---|---|---|
Variable | Model 1 | Model 2 |
Age | −0.08 (0.06) | −0.08 (0.06) |
Gender | −0.08 (0.11) | −0.10 (0.11) |
Job tenure | −0.01 (0.06) | −0.01 (0.06) |
Leaders’ honesty (L) | −0.09 (0.05) | −0.09 (0.05) |
Followers’ honesty (F) | −0.09 (0.05) | −0.08 (0.05) |
L2 | −0.03 (0.04) | |
L × F | −0.03 (0.05) | |
F2 | 0.03 (0.04) | |
R2 | 0.03 | 0.04 |
ΔR2 | 0.01 | |
F for the three quadratic terms | 2.03 * | |
LOC (L = F) | ||
Slope | −0.02 *** | |
Curvature | −0.03 | |
LOIC (L = −F) | ||
Slope | 0.01 | |
Curvature | 0.04 *** |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Do, J.-H.; Kang, S.-W.; Choi, S.B. The Effect of Perceived Supervisor–Subordinate Congruence in Honesty on Emotional Exhaustion: A Polynomial Regression Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9420. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179420
Do J-H, Kang S-W, Choi SB. The Effect of Perceived Supervisor–Subordinate Congruence in Honesty on Emotional Exhaustion: A Polynomial Regression Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(17):9420. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179420
Chicago/Turabian StyleDo, Jae-Heon, Seung-Wan Kang, and Suk Bong Choi. 2021. "The Effect of Perceived Supervisor–Subordinate Congruence in Honesty on Emotional Exhaustion: A Polynomial Regression Analysis" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 17: 9420. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179420