Awareness, Experience, and Knowledge of Farming Households in Rural Bangladesh Regarding Mold Contamination of Food Crops: A Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Questionnaire Preparation
2.3. Study and Sampling Design
2.4. Socio-Demographic Characteristics
2.5. Knowledge Assessment
2.6. Data Collection
2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Study Population
3.2. Level of Awareness and Experience with Mold Contamination of Crops
3.3. Knowledge of Timing, Causes, and Consequences of Mold and Mycotoxin Contamination
3.4. Knowledge of Preventive Practices against Mold Contamination of Crops
3.5. Socio-Demographic Characteristics and Knowledge Scores
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristic | Overall Sample | |
---|---|---|
n | % | |
Religion | 1280 | |
Muslim | 72 | |
Hindu | 28 | |
Household wealth quintile1 | 1277 | |
Poorest | 1 | |
Lower | 11 | |
Middle | 35 | |
Upper | 40 | |
Wealthiest | 13 | |
Household head’s education level | 1278 | |
No formal education | 41 | |
Partial primary | 21 | |
Complete primary | 12 | |
Partial secondary | 20 | |
Completed secondary | 4 | |
Post-secondary | 2 | |
Household head’s sex | 1280 | |
Male | 96 | |
Household’s main income source | 1280 | |
Farmer (rice paddy) | 28 | |
Farmer (not paddy) | 5 | |
Unskilled day laborer | 19 | |
Skilled day laborer | 5 | |
Transport | 4 | |
Salaried/professional | 5 | |
Businessman | 16 | |
Remittances | 6 | |
Other | 1 | |
Livestock/poultry ownership | 1280 | |
Yes | 81 | |
Continuous variables (units) | mean (95% CI) | |
Homestead land (decimal) 2 | 1262 | 11 (9–13) |
Agricultural land (decimal) 2 | 1280 | 153 (93–213) |
Household head’s age (years) | 1280 | 43 (42–44) |
Household size (persons) | 1280 | 7 (6–7) |
Socio-Demographic Characteristics | Overall Knowledge Score | p-Value * | |
---|---|---|---|
Adjusted β | 95% Confidence Interval | ||
Household head’s main occupation (reference = rice paddy farmer) | |||
No income | −1.03 | −2.87, 0.82 | 0.28 |
Farmer (not paddy) | −1.81 | −4.07, 0.45 | 0.12 |
Unskilled day laborer | −0.37 | −1.78, 1.05 | 0.61 |
Skilled day laborer | −0.66 | −3.12, 1.81 | 0.60 |
Transport | 0.07 | −1.96, 2.10 | 0.95 |
Salaried/Professional | 0.78 | −1.36, 2.91 | 0.48 |
Businessman | 0.17 | −1.48, 1.82 | 0.84 |
Remittances | −1.94 | −3.94, 0.05 | 0.06 |
Other | −1.92 | −4.48, 0.64 | 0.14 |
Own livestock/poultry ownership | 0.45 | −0.33, 1.22 | 0.26 |
FAARM intervention group | 2.08 | 0.69, 3.47 | 0.003 |
Household head’s age (per year increase) | 0.03 | −0.01, 0.07 | 0.13 |
Homestead land size (in decimal) (reference = landless, i.e., <10) | |||
10–19 | 0.71 | −0.36, 1.79 | 0.19 |
20–29 | 0.42 | −1.50, 2.33 | 0.67 |
30–39 | 2.82 | 0.32, 5.32 | 0.03 |
≥40 | 2.26 | 0.25, 4.28 | 0.03 |
Agricultural land size (reference = <20 decimal) | |||
20–50 | −0.09 | −1.85, 1.67 | 0.92 |
51–100 | 0.26 | −1.22, 1.74 | 0.73 |
100–200 | 0.27 | −1.10, 1.63 | 0.70 |
>200 | 1.21 | 0.06, 2.36 | 0.04 |
Household size (reference = small, i.e., 2–4 members) | |||
Medium (5–10 members) | 0.17 | −0.55, 0.88 | 0.64 |
Large (>10 members) | −0.07 | −1.90, 1.76 | 0.94 |
Response | Overall Sample | by FAARM Allocation | p-Value * | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control (n = 618) | Intervention (n = 662) | |||||
n | %r | 95% Confidence Interval | %c | %c | ||
Familiar with local mold terms used | 1280 | 60 | (56–65) | 56 | 64 | 0.08 |
Explained mold correctly | 799 | 84 | (80–88) | 44 | 58 | 0.004 |
Aware that mold may contaminate crops | 1280 | 99 | (98–100) | 99 | 100 | 0.13 |
Experienced mold contamination in crops | 1273 | 85 | (81–88) | 87 | 82 | 0.17 |
Before harvesting | 1061 | 82 | (78–86) | 75 | 65 | 0.03 |
During harvesting | 1061 | 17 | (14–21) | 13 | 16 | 0.27 |
Post-harvest and storage | 1061 | 26 | (22–30) | 19 | 25 | 0.06 |
Responses | Overall Population | by FAARM Trial Allocation | p-Value * | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control (n = 618) | Intervention (n = 662) | |||||
n | %r | 95% Confidence Interval | %c | %c | ||
Contamination Conditions | ||||||
Timing of mold contamination | 1273 | |||||
Before harvesting | 88 | (85–91) | 89 | 86 | 0.30 | |
During harvesting | 31 | (26–36) | 24 | 36 | 0.01 | |
Post-harvest/storage | 38 | (33–43) | 31 | 44 | 0.01 | |
Factors favoring mold proliferation before harvest | 1113 | |||||
Repeated planting | 1 | (0.6–2.0) | 0.4 | 1.5 | 0.05 | |
Bad seeds | 6 | (4.4–8.7) | 3.6 | 7.2 | 0.05 | |
High temperatures | 20 | (16–24) | 17 | 18 | 0.72 | |
Drought | 47 | (42–52) | 43 | 39 | 0.46 | |
Crops attacked by pests | 83 | (80–87) | 76 | 71 | 0.18 | |
Field with old harvest debris | 1 | (0.5–1.9) | 0.6 | 1.2 | 0.23 | |
Overcrowding | 1 | (0.4–1.6) | 0.0 | 1.4 | 0.01 | |
Overgrown weeds | 18 | (15–22) | 11 | 21 | <0.001 | |
Other (mainly lack of vitamin/fertilizer and flooding) | 15 | (12–18) | 13 | 13 | 0.94 | |
Factors favoring mold proliferation during harvest | 376 | |||||
Dirty containers | 18 | (12–26) | 3.2 | 7.7 | 0.04 | |
Moist containers | 48 | (41–56) | 8 | 21 | 0.001 | |
Moldy containers | 16 | (11–24) | 2.3 | 7.5 | 0.01 | |
Insect-infested containers | 13 | (9–20) | 2.7 | 5.4 | 0.11 | |
Damaged grains | 8 | (5–14) | 0.7 | 4.2 | 0.01 | |
Soil left on pods | 27 | (22–33) | 5 | 11 | 0.02 | |
Leaving in damaged grains | 5 | (2.8–9.2) | 0.6 | 2.5 | 0.05 | |
High levels of rain | 79 | (73–84) | 19 | 29 | 0.03 | |
Delayed/harvesting | 16 | (12–21) | 3.1 | 6.8 | 0.03 | |
Other (mainly delayed threshing) | 1 | (0.4–4.9) | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.68 | |
Factors favoring mold proliferation after harvest | 467 | |||||
Heaping wet, freshly harvested crops | 84 | (79–88) | 25 | 38 | 0.01 | |
Limited air circulation | 38 | (32–44) | 10 | 18 | 0.002 | |
Storing without rain protecting | 14 | (11–18) | 4.1 | 6.4 | 0.12 | |
Storing without drainage | 7 | (4.3–11.5) | 1.1 | 4.2 | 0.03 | |
Storing in wet environment | 28 | (23–33) | 8 | 13 | 0.10 | |
Rodents/birds in storage area | 29 | (22–36) | 9 | 13 | 0.22 | |
Storing in wet bags | 26 | (20–32) | 7 | 12 | 0.11 | |
Storing bags on the floor | 7 | (4.2–10.0) | 1.1 | 3.8 | 0.02 | |
Other (mainly insect attack, delayed & threshing) | 1 | (0.6–3.4) | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.84 | |
Harmful effects of mold | ||||||
Effect of mold contamination of crops | 1273 | |||||
Change in color | 71 | (66–74) | 65 | 75 | 0.011 | |
Change in taste | 67 | (63–72) | 59 | 74 | <0.001 | |
Change in smell | 52 | (48–57) | 48 | 56 | 0.04 | |
Reduced harvest quantities | 51 | (46–55) | 53 | 48 | 0.224 | |
Reduced market value | 33 | (28–38) | 31 | 35 | 0.470 | |
Harmful effects of moldy feeds on animals | 1273 | 71 | (67–74) | 69 | 72 | 0.43 |
Reduces production of milk or eggs | 903 | 6 | (3.6–11.4) | 1.7 | 7.3 | 0.03 |
Reduces weight gain and growth | 903 | 10 | (7–15) | 5.6 | 8.6 | 0.31 |
Causes fever | 903 | 5 | (3.3–6.9) | 2.5 | 4.2 | 0.16 |
Causes death | 903 | 16 | (13–19) | 13 | 10.0 | 0.18 |
Causes diarrhea | 903 | 92 | (90–94) | 63 | 67 | 0.21 |
Others (mainly other gastro-intestinal problems) | 903 | 18 | (14–22) | 13 | 13 | 0.98 |
Mold that contaminates crops and produces toxins | 1273 | 84 | (80–87) | 83 | 84 | 0.88 |
Mold toxins may persist in processed or cooked food | 1052 | 88 | (84–91) | 75 | 73 | 0.68 |
Harmful effects of mycotoxin on humans | 1052 | 97 | (95–98) | 80 | 82 | 0.72 |
Chronic liver diseases | 1018 | 30 | (25–36) | 19 | 30 | 0.02 |
Reduced child growth | 1018 | 2 | (0.8–3.8) | 0.8 | 2.1 | 0.26 |
Cancers | 1018 | 7 | (4.6–10.9) | 4.6 | 6.9 | 0.36 |
Others (mainly gastro-intestinal problems) | 1018 | 74 | (69–79) | 62 | 58 | 0.50 |
Preventive practices | ||||||
Preventing mold contamination before harvest | 1273 | |||||
Crop rotation schedule | 3 | (2.0–4.9) | 2.9 | 3.3 | 0.771 | |
Plowing under/removing debris | 7 | (4.4–9.9) | 4.5 | 8.6 | 0.127 | |
Using soil tests | 21 | (17–25) | 24 | 18 | 0.080 | |
Select healthy seeds | 8 | (5.2–11.3) | 6.1 | 9.2 | 0.296 | |
Growing recommended seed | 1 | (0.5–1.8) | 0.5 | 1.5 | 0.091 | |
Timing planting to avoid high temperatures | 1 | (0.2–1.1) | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.625 | |
Timing planting to avoid drought stress | 1 | (0.7–2.3) | 0.6 | 1.9 | 0.060 | |
Maintaining intra-plant spacing | 0.4 | (0.1–1.5) | 0.0 | 0.7 | 0.170 | |
Spraying pesticides | 94 | (92–96) | 93 | 95 | 0.393 | |
Other (mainly applying fertilizer, vitamins, or charcoal/ash) | 9 | (6.6–11.4) | 9.1 | 8.3 | 0.761 | |
Preventing mold contamination during harvest | 1273 | |||||
Using clean containers | 34 | (30–39) | 34 | 34 | 0.97 | |
Using dry containers | 54 | (49–58) | 49 | 58 | 0.06 | |
Not collecting damaged grains | 12 | (9–15) | 10 | 13 | 0.32 | |
Avoiding contact with soil | 8 | (6.7–10.5) | 6 | 11 | 0.01 | |
Measuring moisture content | 3 | (2.0–4.5) | 2.1 | 3.8 | 0.20 | |
Drying the crop | 90 | (87–92) | 87 | 91 | 0.15 | |
Cleaning freshly harvested cereal | 13 | (11–17) | 10 | 16 | 0.07 | |
Other (mainly prompt threshing and covering with plastic) | 1 | (0.3–1.4) | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.85 | |
Preventing mold contamination after harvest | 1273 | |||||
Not keeping in heaps | 48 | (43–53) | 45 | 50 | 0.34 | |
Maintaining air circulation | 30 | (25–35) | 25 | 34 | 0.04 | |
Storing in dry/well-ventilated structure | 27 | (23–32) | 26 | 28 | 0.64 | |
Storing protected from rain | 18 | (15–22) | 20 | 17 | 0.52 | |
Storing in an area with water drainage | 4 | (2.5–5.3) | 4.0 | 3.3 | 0.64 | |
Storing protected from rodents/birds | 36 | (31–41) | 36 | 35 | 0.84 | |
Protecting storage area from temperature fluctuation | 3 | (1.8–4.3) | 1.3 | 4.1 | 0.02 | |
Cooling the crops | 24 | (19–30) | 27 | 21 | 0.30 | |
Storing crops above the floor | 34 | (29–39) | 33 | 35 | 0.72 | |
Checking moisture content regularly | 1 | (0.4–1.6) | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.78 | |
Checking temperatures regularly | 1 | (0.7–2.2) | 1.0 | 1.5 | 0.42 | |
Using insecticides | 11 | (8–14) | 10 | 12 | 0.47 | |
Using fungicides | 5 | (2.9–7.0) | 2.8 | 6.2 | 0.08 | |
Cleaning storage area frequently | 11 | (8–14) | 10 | 11 | 0.59 | |
Using preservatives | 2 | (0.9–2.6) | 1.5 | 1.6 | 0.89 | |
Other (mainly applying Neem leaf powder and catching insects) | 2 | (1.0–2.8) | 0.9 | 2.3 | 0.10 | |
Knowledge of contamination conditions | 1280 | |||||
Low (<30 of max. score) | 85 | (81–88) | 88 | 82 | 0.13 | |
Fair (30–59) | 14 | (11–17) | 12 | 15 | 0.29 | |
Good (60+) | 1 | (0.7–2.5) | 0.2 | 2.3 | 0.01 | |
Knowledge of harmful effects | ||||||
Low (<30 of max. score) | 19 | (16–23) | 20 | 18 | 0.47 | |
Fair (30–59) | 77 | (73–81) | 79 | 76 | 0.43 | |
Good (60+) | 4 | (2.3–6.9) | 1.1 | 6.7 | 0.01 | |
Knowledge of preventive practices | ||||||
Low (<30 of max. score) | 86 | (81–89) | 88 | 84 | 0.28 | |
Fair (30–59) | 14 | (11–19) | 12 | 16 | 0.28 | |
Overall knowledge level | 1280 | |||||
Low (<30 of max. score) | 80 | (76–84) | 85 | 76 | 0.02 | |
Fair (30–59) | 19 | (16–24) | 15 | 24 | 0.02 | |
Good (60+) | 0.2 | (0.1–0.9) | 0.0 | 0.5 | 0.14 | |
Mean knowledge scores | 1280 | Mean | ||||
Contamination conditions | 5.7 | (5.3–6.1) | 5.1 | 6.3 | 0.002 | |
Harmful effects | 7.7 | (7.4–8.0) | 7.4 | 8.0 | 0.03 | |
Preventive practices | 6.0 | (5.7–6.3) | 5.7 | 6.3 | 0.08 | |
Overall knowledge | 19.4 | (19–20) | 18 | 21 | 0.004 |
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Kyei, N.N.A.; Waid, J.L.; Ali, N.; Gabrysch, S. Awareness, Experience, and Knowledge of Farming Households in Rural Bangladesh Regarding Mold Contamination of Food Crops: A Cross-Sectional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 10335. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910335
Kyei NNA, Waid JL, Ali N, Gabrysch S. Awareness, Experience, and Knowledge of Farming Households in Rural Bangladesh Regarding Mold Contamination of Food Crops: A Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(19):10335. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910335
Chicago/Turabian StyleKyei, Nicholas N. A., Jillian L. Waid, Nurshad Ali, and Sabine Gabrysch. 2021. "Awareness, Experience, and Knowledge of Farming Households in Rural Bangladesh Regarding Mold Contamination of Food Crops: A Cross-Sectional Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 19: 10335. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910335