Changes in the Impacts of Topographic Factors, Soil Texture, and Cropping Systems on Topsoil Chemical Properties in the Mountainous Areas of the Subtropical Monsoon Region from 2007 to 2017: A Case Study in Hefeng, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Sampling Design and Laboratory Analyses
2.3. Data Analysis
2.3.1. Descriptive Statistics and Difference Tests
2.3.2. Geostatistical Analysis
- (1)
- Semivariance
- (2)
- Spatial Autocorrelation
- (3)
- Fractal Dimensions
- (4)
- Spatial Interpolation
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics and Difference Tests
3.1.1. Descriptive Statistics
3.1.2. Pearson’s Correlation between Topographic Factors and Soil Chemical Properties in Hefeng
3.1.3. Soil Chemical Properties in Different Soil Texture
3.1.4. Soil Chemical Properties in the Different Cropping Systems
3.2. Geostatistical Analysis
3.2.1. Semivariogram and Spatial Autocorrelation
3.2.2. Spatial Distribution of Soil Properties
- (1)
- Spatial Distribution of Soil Organic Matter in 2007 and 2017
- (2)
- Spatial Distribution of AP in 2007 and 2017
- (3)
- Spatial Distribution of Soil AK in 2007 and 2017
- (4)
- Spatial Distribution of Soil pH in 2007 and 2017
4. Discussion
4.1. Possible Reasons for Soil Chemical Property Changes
4.2. Suggestions for Local Farming Management
4.2.1. Moderate Use of Fertilizer
4.2.2. Crop Selection According to Soil Suitability and Topographic Factors
4.2.3. Construction of Water Conservancy Facilities
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Soil Property | Year | RMSE | SEM | RMSS | MAE |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
OM | 2007 | 10.216 | 0.0021 | 1.2248 | 9.545 |
2017 | 8.629 | 0.0260 | 1.0046 | 9.295 | |
AP | 2007 | 35.687 | −0.0206 | 0.9843 | 36.354 |
2017 | 21.971 | −0.0193 | 0.8969 | 28.803 | |
AK | 2007 | 68.447 | −0.0216 | 0.9236 | 88.789 |
2017 | 55.984 | −0.0037 | 0.8401 | 66.949 | |
pH | 2007 | 0.903 | 0.0034 | 0.997 | 0.956 |
2017 | 0.8034 | 0.0059 | 1.119 | 0.831 |
Level of pH | pH | Level of AP, AK, and OM | AP | AK | OM |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Extremely acidic | <4.5 | Very low | <3 | <30 | <6 |
Very acidic | 4.5~5.0 | Low | 3~5 | 30~50 | 6~10 |
Acidic | 5.0~5.5 | Lower-middle | 5~10 | 50~100 | 10~20 |
Slightly acidic | 5.5~6.0 | Upper-middle | 10~20 | 100~150 | 20~30 |
Neutrality | 6.0~7.9 | High | 20~40 | 150~200 | 30~40 |
Very high | >40 | >200 | >40 |
Year | Mean | Maximum | Min | SD | CV (%) | Skewness | Kurtosis | K–Sp | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OM (g/kg) | 2007 | 33.64 | 59.60 | 3.40 | 11.79 | 34.83 | 0.09 | −0.23 | <0.01 |
2017 | 35.49 | 55.60 | 13.64 | 9.03 | 25.44 | 0.02 | −0.28 | <0.01 | |
AP (mg/kg) | 2007 | 39.56 | 158.10 | 0.10 | 37.60 | 76.46 | −0.68 | 0.99 | <0.01 |
2017 | 58.51 | 89.40 | 6.10 | 21.23 | 36.28 | 0.02 | −0.28 | <0.01 | |
AK (mg/kg) | 2007 | 147.82 | 352.00 | 17.00 | 82.56 | 56.09 | −0.40 | −0.20 | <0.01 |
2017 | 118.02 | 250.00 | 10.00 | 62.97 | 51.35 | −0.24 | −0.08 | <0.01 | |
pH | 2007 | 5.36 | 7.08 | 4.00 | 0.85 | 15.87 | 0.16 | 0.45 | <0.01 |
2017 | 5.99 | 7.75 | 4.63 | 0.77 | 12.88 | 0.04 | −0.07 | <0.01 |
pH | OM | AP | AK | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH_2007 | 1 | −0.110 | 0.185 ** | −0.062 | pH_2017 |
OM_2007 | −0.099 | 1 | 0.001 | 0.017 | OM_2017 |
AP_2007 | −0.017 | 0.192 ** | 1 | 0.035 | AP_2017 |
AK_2007 | 0.087 | 0.245 ** | 0.241 ** | 1 | AK_2017 |
Topographic Factors | Year | OM | AP | AK | pH |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Elevation | 2007 | −0.197 ** | −0.043 * | 0.305 ** | −0.012 |
2017 | −0.334 ** | −0.121 * | 0.408 ** | −0.089 | |
Slope | 2007 | −0.037 | −0.159 * | −0.015 | −0.182 |
2017 | −0.021 | −0.154 ** | −0.175 ** | −0.038 | |
Topographic relief | 2007 | −0.071 | 0.114 | 0.062 | −0.032 |
2017 | −0.022 | −0.151 * | −0.173 ** | −0.039 | |
Profile curvature | 2007 | −0.070 | −0.120 | −0.005 | −0.183 |
2017 | −0.022 | −0.153 ** | −0.175 ** | −0.038 | |
Planform curvature | 2007 | −0.028 | −0.219 * | 0.022 | −0.227 ** |
2017 | −0.015 | −0.114 | −0.074 | −0.128 * |
Soil Textures | 2007 | 2017 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OM (g/kg) | AP (mg/kg) | AK (mg/kg) | pH | OM (g/kg) | AP (mg/kg) | AK (mg/kg) | pH | |
Light loam | 36.96 | 37.93 | 201.31 | 5.51 | 35.11 | 59.45 | 119.50 | 6.06 |
Sandy loam | 35.77 | 36.42 | 181.21 | 5.12 | 41.94 | 59.60 | 134.92 | 5.55 |
Sandy soil | 30.46 | 33.12 | 123.82 | 5.18 | 43.33 | 56.42 | 108.67 | 6.38 |
Medium loam | 38.67 | 42.09 | 179.72 | 5.29 | 37.72 | 59.66 | 113.57 | 5.88 |
ANOVA (F values) | 6.68 ** | 0.50 | 7.75 ** | 1.03 | 2.18 | 0.02 | 0.29 | 1.48 |
Years | 0.003 | 9.585 * | 61.097 ** | 146.878 ** |
Cropping Systems | 2007 | 2017 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OM (g/kg) | AP (mg/kg) | AK (mg/kg) | pH | OM (g/kg) | AP (mg/kg) | AK (mg/kg) | pH | |
Maize | 34.46 | 44.12 | 178.46 | 5.3 | 35.90 | 57.44 | 125.41 | 5.93 |
Maize–Potato | 32.48 | 77.86 | 127.08 | 5.18 | 38.19 | 46.85 | 112.62 | 6.02 |
Orange | 26.15 | 31.62 | 111.82 | 5.39 | 31.60 | 61.65 | 62.00 | 5.73 |
Potato | 28.68 | 78.84 | 142.5 | 5.41 | 36.55 | 66.00 | 104.00 | 5.44 |
Rice | 37.38 | 32.14 | 125.12 | 5.45 | 32.87 | 67.47 | 67.15 | 6.25 |
Tea | 35.19 | 48.97 | 127.04 | 4.65 | 36.51 | 64.44 | 106.26 | 6.11 |
Tobacco leaf | 36.63 | 62.45 | 250.02 | 5.29 | 33.97 | 56.71 | 149.85 | 5.77 |
Vegetable | 43.79 | 41.89 | 239.55 | 4.96 | 38.64 | 58.72 | 132.17 | 6.33 |
ANOVA (F values) | 20.64 ** | 22.48 ** | 100.20 ** | 43.43 ** | 0.52 | 1.42 | 2.80 * | 1.08 |
Year | Soil Properties | Model | Nugget (C0) | Sill (C0 + C) | Nugget/Sill | Range (m) | R2 | RSS | Moran’s I | Z | FD |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2007 | Log (OM) | S | 0.010 | 0.020 | 0.498 | 41,673.142 | 0.860 | 2.23 × 10−5 | 0.235 *** | 8.17 | 1.94 |
2017 | E | 0.004 | 0.008 | 0.500 | 22,320.000 | 0.833 | 1.15 × 10−3 | 0.243 *** | 2.35 | 1.98 | |
2007 | Log (AP) | E | 0.000 | 0.058 | 0.002 | 32,200.000 | 0.776 | 1.37 × 10−4 | 0.142 *** | 4.92 | 1.834 |
2017 | E | 0.407 | 0.815 | 0.499 | 25,800.000 | 0.679 | 5.84 × 10−2 | 0.203 * | 161 | 1.91 | |
2007 | Log (AK) | E | 0.021 | 0.059 | 0.350 | 15,630.000 | 0.862 | 1.44 × 10−6 | 0.318 ** | 1.92 | 1.98 |
2017 | E | 0.032 | 0.197 | 0.165 | 11,460.000 | 0.718 | 4.19 × 10−3 | 0.316 *** | 4.81 | 1.95 | |
2007 | Log (pH) | G | 0.0002 | 0.001 | 0.143 | 34,467.811 | 0820 | 6.19 × 10−7 | 0.401 ** | 2.12 | 1.99 |
2017 | G | 0.0739 | 0.149 | 0.497 | 34,069.439 | 0.875 | 1.24 × 10−3 | 0.274 *** | 3.15 | 1.99 |
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Li, Q.; Gu, F.; Zhou, Y.; Xu, T.; Wang, L.; Zuo, Q.; Xiao, L.; Liu, J.; Tian, Y. Changes in the Impacts of Topographic Factors, Soil Texture, and Cropping Systems on Topsoil Chemical Properties in the Mountainous Areas of the Subtropical Monsoon Region from 2007 to 2017: A Case Study in Hefeng, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 832. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020832
Li Q, Gu F, Zhou Y, Xu T, Wang L, Zuo Q, Xiao L, Liu J, Tian Y. Changes in the Impacts of Topographic Factors, Soil Texture, and Cropping Systems on Topsoil Chemical Properties in the Mountainous Areas of the Subtropical Monsoon Region from 2007 to 2017: A Case Study in Hefeng, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(2):832. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020832
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Qing, Fenlan Gu, Yong Zhou, Tao Xu, Li Wang, Qian Zuo, Liang Xiao, Jingyi Liu, and Yang Tian. 2021. "Changes in the Impacts of Topographic Factors, Soil Texture, and Cropping Systems on Topsoil Chemical Properties in the Mountainous Areas of the Subtropical Monsoon Region from 2007 to 2017: A Case Study in Hefeng, China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 2: 832. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020832