Occurrence, Fate, Effects, and Risks of Dexamethasone: Ecological Implications Post-COVID-19
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. COVID-19 and Dexamethasone
1.2. Challenges of DEXA in Aquatic Systems
2. Occurrence of DEXA in the Environment
2.1. Sources of DEXA and Its Metabolites
2.2. Presence of DEXA in the Environment
Country | Environmental Matrix | Analytical Methods | Concentrations (ng/L) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
China | Surface water | SPE-LC-MS/MS; UPLC MS/MS | <0.02–22 | [71] |
Malaysia | Surface water | ELISA kit | 0.02–8.74 | [65] |
China | Urban river water | LC–MS/MS | 0–8.0 | [60] |
China | Wastewater and river water | LC–ESI–MS/MS | 0.3–3.4 | [72] |
Switzerland | Rivers and wastewaters | LC–MS/MS | 8–13; 15–1720 | [27] |
The Netherlands | Various wastewater | LC–MS/MS | 0–90 | [67] |
The Netherlands | Industry, hospital, STP, Surface water | CALUX reporter gene Bioassay | 243, 96, 11–38, 0.39–1.3 | [66] |
China | River water | UHPLC–ESI–MS/MS | 0.3–3.5 | [61] |
Germany | Treated wastewater, rivers, and streams. | LC–MS/MS | 0–0.4 | [73] |
Singapore | Wastewater | UHPLC–(ESI)–MS/MS | 236 | [63] |
Malaysia | Drinking water | ELISA kit | 0–0.37 | [65] |
Malaysia | Drinking water | ELISA kit | 0.01–0.26 | [64] |
Malaysia | Tap water | ELISA kit | 0.32 | [74] |
South Africa | Effluent wastewater | LC-Orbitrap-HRMS | 0.92 | [75] |
Malaysia | Drinking water | UHPLC–MS/MS | 0.36–2.11 | [76] |
Hungary | River water | SPE–LC–MS/MS | 0.064–0.068 | [31] |
France | Wastewater | SPE–LC–MS/MS | 7–15 | [77] |
China | Sewage sludge | UHPLC–(ESI)–MS/MS | 0.02–0.81 | [78] |
China | Surface water, Wastewater, and sludge | RRLC–MS/MS | 0–22 | [79] |
China | Swine wastewater | RRLS–MS/MS | <1.27–260 | [80] |
China | Surface water (downstream—1000 m) | RRLS–MS/MS | 37.8 | [80] |
Italy | River and wastewater effluent | SPE–HPLC–ESI–MS/MS | 2–3 | [81] |
Japan | Wastewater effluent | UHPLC–MS/MS | 0–1.3 | [82] |
Malaysia | River water | LC–QTRAP MS/MS | 0–2.4 | [83] |
China | Aquaculture water | UPLC–MS/MS | 0–41 | [84] |
Portugal | Hospital effluents, WWTP influent and effluent | UPLC–QTrap–MS/MS | 0–352 | [70] |
China | Surface watersheds | UPLC–ESI–TQD–MS/MS | 1.01–1.30 | [85] |
USA | Surface water, groundwater and wastewater | (SPE) UHPLC–MS/MS | <1–94 | [76] |
Spain | Hospital effluents | LC–(ESI)–MS/MS | 360 | [28] |
Mexico | Hospital effluents | LC–MS/MS | 9.8 | [86] |
Malaysia | Estuarine water | (SPE)-LC-MS/MS) | 1.0–1.51 | [29] |
Spain | River waters, influent and effluent sewage | UHPLC–(ESI)–MS/MSa | <20 | [51] |
3. Ecotoxicological Effects of DEXA
3.1. Effects on Bacteria and Microbial Communities
3.2. Effects on Algae
3.3. Effects on Aquatic Invertebrates
3.4. Effects on Fish
4. Treatment Technologies of DEXA in Technical Systems
4.1. Conventional Removal of DEXA in Wastewater
4.2. Advanced Water Treatment Techniques
4.2.1. Physico-Chemical Treatments
4.2.2. Membrane Technology
4.2.3. Advanced Oxidation Processes
5. Environmental Risks of Detected DEXA
6. Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Drug Category | CAS No | Drug Name | Formula | Molecular Weight (g/Mol) | Molecular Structure |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antivirals | 1809249-37-3 | Remdesivir | C27H35N6O8P | 602.6 | |
159989-64-7 | Nelfinavir | C32H45N3O4S | 663.9 | ||
259793-96-9 | Favipiravir | C5H4FN3O2 | 157.104 | ||
192725-17-0 | Lopinavir- | C37H48N4O5 | 628.814 | ||
155213-67-5 | Ritonavir | C37H48N6O5S2 | 720.948 | ||
196618-13-0 | Oseltamivir | C16H28N2O4 | 312.4 | ||
Antimalarial | 54-05-7 | Chloroquine | C18H26ClN3 | 319.872 | |
118-42-3 | Hydroxycloroquine | C18H26ClN3O | 335.872 | ||
Anti-Inflammatory | 50-23-7 | Hydrocortisone | C21H30O5 | 362.46 | |
50-02-2 | Dexamethasone | C22H29FO5 | 392.46 | ||
Antiparasitic | 70288-86-7 | Ivermectin | C48H74O14 | 875.1 | |
Antibacterial | Azithromycin | C38H72N2O12 | 749.0 |
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Musee, N.; Kebaabetswe, L.P.; Tichapondwa, S.; Tubatsi, G.; Mahaye, N.; Leareng, S.K.; Nomngongo, P.N. Occurrence, Fate, Effects, and Risks of Dexamethasone: Ecological Implications Post-COVID-19. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11291. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111291
Musee N, Kebaabetswe LP, Tichapondwa S, Tubatsi G, Mahaye N, Leareng SK, Nomngongo PN. Occurrence, Fate, Effects, and Risks of Dexamethasone: Ecological Implications Post-COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(21):11291. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111291
Chicago/Turabian StyleMusee, Ndeke, Lemme Prica Kebaabetswe, Shepherd Tichapondwa, Gosaitse Tubatsi, Ntombikayise Mahaye, Samuel Keeng Leareng, and Philiswa Nosizo Nomngongo. 2021. "Occurrence, Fate, Effects, and Risks of Dexamethasone: Ecological Implications Post-COVID-19" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 21: 11291. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111291