Hospital Admission Trends Due to Viral Infections Characterised by Skin and Mucous Membrane Lesions in the Past Two Decades in England and Wales: An Ecological Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Sources and the Population
2.2. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Admissions Rates and Trends by Gender
3.2. Admissions Rates and Trends by Age Group
3.3. Correlation between Viral Infection Characterised by Skin and Mucous Membrane Lesions Admissions and Age and Gender
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Tompa, D.R.; Immanuel, A.; Srikanth, S.; Kadhirvel, S. Trends and strategies to combat viral infections: A review on FDA approved antiviral drugs. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2021, 172, 524–541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Christensen, K.L.Y.; Holman, R.C.; Steiner, C.A.; Sejvar, J.J.; Stoll, B.J.; Schonberger, L.B. Infectious Disease Hospitalizations in the United States. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2009, 49, 1025–1035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Szymanski, C.M.S.R.; Aebi, M. Essentials of Glycobiology. In Bacterial and Viral Infections, 3rd ed.; Varki, A., Cummings, R.D., Esko, J.D., Stanley, P., Hart, G.W., Aebi, M., Darvill, A.G., Kinoshita, T., Packer, N.H., Prestegard, J.H., et al., Eds.; Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press: Huntington, NY, USA, 2017. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK453060/ (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- The Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology. UK Trends in Infectious Disease; Westminster: London, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Atchison, C.J.; Hassounah, S. The UK immunisation schedule: Changes to vaccine policy and practice in 2013/14. JRSM Open 2015, 6, 2054270415577762. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Armstrong, G.L.; Conn, L.A.; Pinner, R.W. Trends in infectious disease mortality in the United States during the 20th century. JAMA 1999, 281, 61–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tseng, A.; Seet, J.; Phillips, E.J. The evolution of three decades of antiretroviral therapy: Challenges, triumphs and the promise of the future. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2015, 79, 182–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kish, T.; Aziz, A.; Sorio, M. Hepatitis C in a New Era: A Review of Current Therapies. Pharm. Therap. 2017, 42, 316–329. [Google Scholar]
- Marzano, A.V.; Tourlaki, A.; Merlo, V.; Spinelli, D.; Venegoni, L.; Crosti, C. Herpes simplex virus infection and pemphigus. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol. 2009, 22, 781–786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roujeau, J.C.; Bonnetblanc, J.M. Human papilloma virus (HPV) infections of the skin and mucous membranes. Epidemiology, physiopathology, diagnosis, treatment. Ann. Dermatol. Venereol. 2000, 127, A192–A197. [Google Scholar]
- The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Mucous Membrane Anatomy. 2021. Available online: https://www.britannica.com/science/mucous-membrane (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- Silverwood, R.J.; Mansfield, K.E.; Mulick, A.; Wong, A.Y.S.; Schmidt, S.A.J.; Roberts, A.; Smeeth, L.; Abuabara, K.; Langan, S.M. Atopic eczema in adulthood and mortality: UK population-based cohort study, 1998–2016. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2021, 147, 1753–1763. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Persson, M.S.M.; Harman, K.E.; Vinogradova, Y.; Langan, S.M.; Hippisley-Cox, J.; Thomas, K.S. Incidence, prevalence and mortality of bullous pemphigoid in england 1998-2017: A population-based cohort study. Br. J. Dermatol. 2021, 184, 68–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shiue, I. Hospital admissions for allergy and eczema varied across regions in England, 2008–2011. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2012, 109, 225–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saxena, S.; Thompson, P.; Birger, R.; Bottle, A.; Spyridis, N.; Wong, I.; Johnson, A.P.; Gilbert, R.; Sharland, M. Increasing skin infections and Staphylococcus aureus complications in children, England, 1997–2006. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2010, 16, 530–533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdalrahman, B.; Laverty, A.A.; Beckett, G.; Majeed, A. Trends in hospital admissions for Varicella and Zoster viruses in England, 2001/2002–2010/2011: Time trend study. JRSM Open 2015, 6, 2054270414562984. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Health and Social Care Information Centre (HSCIC). Hospital Episode Statistics. 2021. Available online: https://content.digital.nhs.uk/hes (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- NHS Wales Informatics Service. Annual PEDW Data Tables. 2021. Available online: http://www.infoandstats.wales.nhs.uk/page.cfm?pid=41010&orgid=869 (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- Hemmo, S.I.; Naser, A.Y.; Alwafi, H.; Mansour, M.M.; Alanazi, A.F.R.; Jalal, Z.; Alsairafi, Z.K.; Paudyal, V.; Alomari, E.; Al-Momani, H.; et al. Hospital Admissions Due to Ischemic Heart Diseases and Prescriptions of Cardiovascular Diseases Medications in England and Wales in the Past Two Decades. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7041. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Naser, A.Y.; Wang, Q.; Wong, L.Y.L.; Ilomaki, J.; Bell, J.S.; Fang, G.; Wong, I.C.K.; Wei, L. Hospital Admissions due to Dysglycaemia and Prescriptions of Antidiabetic Medications in England and Wales: An Ecological Study. Diabetes Ther. 2018, 9, 153–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- NHS Wales Informatics Service. Data Quality Status Report: Admitted Patient Care Data Set. 2021. Available online: http://www.infoandstats.wales.nhs.uk/documents/869/20191007-APCDQStatusReport2018-19-v1.pdf (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- Office for National Statistics (ONS). Population Estimates. 2021. Available online: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/datasets/populationestimatesforukenglandandwalesscotlandandnorthernireland (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- World Data Atlas. The United Kingdom. 2021. Available online: https://knoema.com/atlas/United-Kingdom/topics/Demographics/Population (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- National Health Services. Hospital Admitted Patient Care Activity, 2015–2016. Available online: https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20180328130140/http://digital.nhs.uk/catalogue/PUB22378 (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- Cohen, J.; Powderly, W.; Berkley, S.; Calandra, T.; Clumeck, N.; Finch, R. Infectious Diseases; Mosby: London, UK, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Brisson, M.; Edmunds, W.J. Epidemiology of Varicella-Zoster Virus in England and Wales. J. Med. Virol. 2003, 70, S9–S14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Hoek, A.; Gay, N.; Melegaro, A.; Opstelten, W.; Edmunds, W. Estimating the cost-effectiveness of vaccination against herpes zoster in England and Wales. Vaccine 2009, 27, 1454–1467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schmader, K.; Gnann, J.; Watson, C. The Epidemiological, Clinical, and Pathological Rationale for the Herpes Zoster Vaccine. J. Infect. Dis. 2008, 197, S207–S215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Worldometer. Countries in the World by Population 2021. Available online: https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/ (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- Jackson, L.; Reynolds, M.; Harpaz, R. Hospitalizations to treat herpes zoster in older adults: Causes and validated rates. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2008, 47, 754–759. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Oh, S.J.; Lee, J.K.; Shin, O.S. Aging and the Immune System: The Impact of Immunosenescence on Viral Infection, Immunity and Vaccine Immunogenicity. Immune Netw. 2019, 19, e37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, F.; Hadler, J.L. Epidemiology of Primary Varicella and Herpes Zoster Hospitalizations: The Pre-Varicella Vaccine Era. J. Infect. Dis. 2000, 181, 1897–1905. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Public Health England. Herpes zoster (Shingles) Immunisation Programme 2019 to 2020: Evaluation Reports 2020 [updated 2020]. Available online: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/herpes-zoster-shingles-immunisation-programme-2019-to-2020-evaluation-reports (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- Public Health England. Vaccination against Shingles Guide 2021 [updated 13 January 2021]. Available online: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/shingles-vaccination-for-adults-aged-70-or-79-years-of-age-a5-leaflet/vaccination-against-shingles-guide (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- National Institute for Health Research. Uptake of Shingles Vaccination is More Likely if Proactively Offered in Primary Care. 2020. Available online: https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/uptake-of-shingles-vaccination-is-more-likely-if-proactively-offered-in-primary-care/ (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- Bricout, H.; Torcel-Pagnon, L.; Lecomte, C.; Almas, M.; Matthews, I.; Lu, X.; Wheelock, A.; Sevdalis, N. Determinants of shingles vaccine acceptance in the United Kingdom. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0220230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Neighbors, M.; Tannehill-Jones, R. Childhood diseases and disorders. In Human Diseases, 3rd ed.; Cengage Learning: Clifton Park, NY, USA, 2010; pp. 457–479. [Google Scholar]
- University of Oxford. Rubella (German Measles) 2019. Updated 2019. Available online: https://vk.ovg.ox.ac.uk/vk/rubella#:~:text=Since%202013%20there%20have%20been,in%20the%20UK%20with%20CRS (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- Atkinson, W. Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases, 12th ed.; Public Health Foundation: Washington, DC, USA, 2011; pp. 301–323. [Google Scholar]
- Medical Brief. WHO Withdraws UK’s ’Measles Free’ Status; PM Blames Social Media. 2019. Available online: https://www.medicalbrief.co.za/withdraws-uks-measles-free-status-pm-blames-social-media/ (accessed on 20 October 2021).
- Simon, A.; Hollander, G.; McMichael, A. Evolution of the immune system in humans from infancy to old age. Proc. Biol. Sci. 2015, 282, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alter, S.; Bennett, J.; Koranyi, K.; Kreppel, A.; Simon, R. Common childhood viral infections. Curr. Probl. Pediatr. Adolesc. Health Care 2015, 45, 21–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fleming, D.; Cross, K.; Cobb, W.; Chapman, R. Gender difference in the incidence of shingles. Epidemiol. Infect. 2004, 132, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yawn, B.; Wollan, P.; Kurland, M.; Sauver, J.L.S.; Saddier, P. Herpes zoster recurrences more frequent than previously reported. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2011, 86, 88–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Studahl, M.; Petzold, M.; Cassel, T. Disease burden of herpes zoster in Sweden—Predominance in the elderly and in women—A register based study. BMC Infect. Dis. 2013, 13, 586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Thomas, S.; Hall, A. What does epidemiology tell us about risk factors for herpes zoster? Lancet Infect. Dis. 2004, 4, 26–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Diaz, A.; Belena, A.; Zueco, J. The Role of Age and Gender in Perceived Vulnerability to Infectious Diseases. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
ICD Code | Description | Percentage from Total Number of Admissions |
---|---|---|
B02 | Zoster (herpes zoster) | 26.9% |
B01 | Varicella (chickenpox) | 23.4% |
B00 | Herpesviral (herpes simplex) infections | 18.7% |
B07 | Viral warts | 17.6% |
B08 | Other viral infections characterized by skin and mucous membrane lesions, not elsewhere classified (orthopoxvirus infections, Molluscum contagiosum, Exanthema subitum, Erythema infectiosum, Enteroviral vesicular stomatitis with exanthema, and Enteroviral vesicular pharyngitis) | 7.5% |
B09 | Unspecified viral infection characterized by skin and mucous membrane lesions | 4.3% |
B05 | Measles | 1.5% |
B06 | Rubella (German measles) | 0.1% |
Diseases | Rate of Diseases in 1999 per 100,000 Persons (95% CI) | Rate of Diseases in 2019 per 100,000 Persons (95% CI) | Percentage Change from 1999 to 2019 |
---|---|---|---|
Herpesviral (herpes simplex) infections | 4.93 (4.74–5.12) | 7.50 (7.28–7.72) | 52.0% |
Varicella (chickenpox) | 5.00 (4.81–5.20) | 9.34 (9.09–9.58) | 86.6% |
Zoster (herpes zoster) | 6.78 (6.55–7.00) | 10.08 (9.82–10.33) | 48.7% |
Measles | 0.14 (0.11–0.17) | 0.80 (0.73–0.88) | 474.4% |
Rubella (German measles) | 0.04 (0.03–0.06) | 0.00 (0.00–0.01) | −92.4% |
Viral warts | 6.66 (6.44–6.88) | 5.00 (4.82–5.18) | −24.9% |
Other viral infections characterized by skin and mucous membrane lesions, not elsewhere classified | 1.70 (1.59–1.81) | 4.15 (3.99–4.32) | 144.1% |
Unspecified viral infection characterized by skin and mucous membrane lesions | 0.41 (0.35–0.46) | 2.11 (1.99–2.22) | 418.0% |
Type of Viral Infection Characterised by Skin and Mucous Membrane Lesions | Zoster (Herpes Zoster) | Varicella (Chickenpox) | Herpesviral (Herpes Simplex) Infections | Viral Warts | Other Viral Infections Characterized by Skin and Mucous Membrane Lesions, Not Elsewhere Classified | Unspecified Viral Infection Characterized by Skin and Mucous Membrane Lesions | Measles | Rubella (German Measles) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | ||||||||
Below 15 years | 0.930 ** | 0.953 ** | 0.925 ** | −0.570 ** | 0.851 ** | 0.937 ** | 0.418 | −0.831 ** |
15–59 years | 0.135 | 0.015 | 0.154 | 0.483 * | 0.280 | −0.046 | 0.202 | −0.225 |
64–74 years | 0.824 ** | 0.667 ** | 0.809 ** | −0.088 | 0.742 ** | 0.575 ** | 0.107 | −0.770 ** |
75 years and above | 0.957 ** | 0.787 ** | 0.916 ** | −0.466 * | 0.763 ** | 0.878 ** | 0.295 | −0.850 ** |
Gender | ||||||||
Males | 0.958 ** | 0.924 ** | 0.953 ** | −0.431 | 0.919 ** | 0.888 ** | 0.357 | −0.840 ** |
Females | 0.963 ** | 0.915 ** | 0.952 ** | −0.410 | 0.908 ** | 0.882 ** | 0.359 | −0.879 ** |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Naser, A.Y.; Alrawashdeh, H.M.; Alwafi, H.; AbuAlhommos, A.K.; Jalal, Z.; Paudyal, V.; Alsairafi, Z.K.; Salawati, E.M.; Samannodi, M.; Sweiss, K.; et al. Hospital Admission Trends Due to Viral Infections Characterised by Skin and Mucous Membrane Lesions in the Past Two Decades in England and Wales: An Ecological Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11649. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111649
Naser AY, Alrawashdeh HM, Alwafi H, AbuAlhommos AK, Jalal Z, Paudyal V, Alsairafi ZK, Salawati EM, Samannodi M, Sweiss K, et al. Hospital Admission Trends Due to Viral Infections Characterised by Skin and Mucous Membrane Lesions in the Past Two Decades in England and Wales: An Ecological Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(21):11649. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111649
Chicago/Turabian StyleNaser, Abdallah Y., Hamzeh Mohammad Alrawashdeh, Hassan Alwafi, Amal Khaleel AbuAlhommos, Zahraa Jalal, Vibhu Paudyal, Zahra Khalil Alsairafi, Emad M. Salawati, Mohammed Samannodi, Kanar Sweiss, and et al. 2021. "Hospital Admission Trends Due to Viral Infections Characterised by Skin and Mucous Membrane Lesions in the Past Two Decades in England and Wales: An Ecological Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 21: 11649. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111649