Child Labor in Family Tobacco Farms in Southern Brazil: Occupational Exposure and Related Health Problems
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Total (n = 99) | Age Group | Sex | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<14 Years (n = 11) | 14–15 Years (n = 29) | 16–17 Years (n = 59) | p-Value for Age | Male (n = 51) | Female (n = 48) | p-Value for Sex | ||
% | % | % | % | % | % | |||
Sex | 0.975 a | --- | ||||||
Male | 51.5 | 54.5 | 51.7 | 50.8 | --- | --- | ||
Female | 48.5 | 45.5 | 48.3 | 49.2 | --- | --- | ||
Age-school grade mismatch * | <0.001 b | 0.065 a | ||||||
Adequate for age | 72.7 | 100 | 96.5 | 55.9 | 64.7 | 81.3 | ||
Inadequate for age | 27.3 | 0 | 3.5 | 44.1 | 35.3 | 18.7 | ||
Smoking | 0.252 b | 0.117 b | ||||||
No | 92.9 | 90.9 | 100 | 89.8 | 88.2 | 97.9 | ||
Yes | 4.1 | 0 | 0 | 6.8 | 7.8 | 0 | ||
Former smoker | 3.0 | 9.1 | 0 | 3.4 | 4.0 | 2.1 | ||
Passive smoking | 0.913 b | 0.037 b | ||||||
No | 43.4 | 36.4 | 44.8 | 44.1 | 33.3 | 54.2 | ||
Yes | 56.6 | 63.6 | 55.2 | 55.9 | 66.7 | 45.8 | ||
Alcohol consumption at weekends | 0.007 b | 0.005 b | ||||||
Has never drunk | 33.3 | 54.5 | 44.9 | 23.7 | 25.5 | 41.6 | ||
Drinks occasionally | 20.2 | 27.3 | 31.0 | 13.6 | 21.6 | 18.8 | ||
≤1 dose/day | 16.1 | 0 | 13.8 | 20.4 | 13.7 | 18.8 | ||
2 doses/day | 15.2 | 9.1 | 0 | 23.7 | 11.8 | 18.8 | ||
3 or more doses/day | 15.2 | 9.1 | 10.3 | 18.6 | 27.4 | 2.0 | ||
Alcohol consumption during the week | 0.977 b | 0.202b | ||||||
Has never drunk | 82.8 | 90.9 | 79.2 | 83.0 | 76.5 | 89.6 | ||
Drinks occasionally | 13.1 | 9.1 | 13.8 | 13.6 | 15.7 | 10.4 | ||
≤1 dose/day | 2.0 | 0 | 3.5 | 1.7 | 3.9 | 0 | ||
2 or more doses/day | 2.0 | 0 | 3.5 | 1.7 | 3.9 | 0 | ||
Amount of tobacco produced (Kg) ** | 0.074 b | 0.043 b | ||||||
1–5000 | 32.6 | 20.0 | 37.0 | 32.8 | 22.0 | 44.4 | ||
5001–10,000 | 49.5 | 80.0 | 55.6 | 41.3 | 54.0 | 44.4 | ||
10,001–36,000 | 17.9 | 0 | 7.4 | 25.9 | 24.0 | 11.2 | ||
Curing barn on the property ** | 0.756 b | 0.433 b | ||||||
No curing barn | 2.1 | 0 | 3.7 | 1.7 | 2.0 | 2.2 | ||
Only conventional curing barn | 69.5 | 70.0 | 74.1 | 67.3 | 64.0 | 75.6 | ||
Only electric curing barn | 10.5 | 0 | 7.4 | 13.8 | 10.0 | 11.1 | ||
Both | 17.9 | 30.0 | 14.8 | 17.2 | 24.0 | 11.1 |
Variables | Total (n = 99) | Age Group | Sex | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<14 Years (n = 11) | 14–15 Years (n = 29) | 16–17 Years (n = 59) | p-Value for Age | Male (n = 51) | Female (n = 48) | p-Value for Sex | ||
% | % | % | % | % | % | |||
Age at which began doing farm work * | 0.049 b | 0.752 b | ||||||
<10 years | 3.3 | 0 | 3.6 | 3.5 | 4.2 | 2.3 | ||
10–11 years | 23.1 | 83.3 | 14.3 | 21.1 | 22.9 | 23.3 | ||
12–13 years | 39.5 | 16.7 | 53.5 | 35.1 | 43.7 | 34.9 | ||
14–15 years | 33.0 | 0 | 28.6 | 38.5 | 29.2 | 37.2 | ||
16–17 years | 1.1 | 0 | 0 | 1.8 | 0 | 2.3 | ||
Age at which began working with pesticide | 0.132 b | 0.001 b | ||||||
Does not work with pesticide | 69.7 | 81.8 | 72.4 | 66.0 | 52.9 | 87.5 | ||
<14 years | 9.1 | 18.2 | 13.8 | 5.1 | 11.8 | 6.2 | ||
14–15 years | 14.1 | 0 | 13.8 | 17.0 | 23.5 | 4.2 | ||
16–17 years | 7.1 | 0 | 0 | 11.9 | 11.8 | 2.1 | ||
Daily hours of farm work outside harvest period | 0.095 b | 0.061 b | ||||||
Does not work | 10.1 | 0 | 10.3 | 11.9 | 5.9 | 14.6 | ||
<5 h | 37.4 | 63.6 | 48.4 | 27.1 | 29.4 | 45.8 | ||
5–7 h | 23.2 | 27.3 | 24.1 | 22.0 | 25.5 | 20.8 | ||
>7 h | 29.3 | 9.1 | 17.2 | 39.0 | 39.2 | 18.8 | ||
Daily hours of farm work during the harvest | 0.006 b | 0.681 a | ||||||
<5 h | 15.2 | 9.1 | 27.6 | 10.2 | 11.8 | 18.8 | ||
5–7 h | 23.2 | 63.6 | 13.8 | 20.3 | 23.5 | 22.9 | ||
>7 h | 61.6 | 27.3 | 58.6 | 69.5 | 64.7 | 58.3 | ||
Daily hours of domestic work outside harvest period | 0.839 b | <0.001 b | ||||||
Does not work | 24.2 | 27.3 | 27.6 | 22.0 | 41.2 | 6.3 | ||
1–3 h | 41.4 | 27.3 | 41.4 | 44.1 | 43.1 | 39.6 | ||
>3 h | 34.3 | 45.4 | 31.0 | 33.9 | 15.7 | 54.1 | ||
Daily hours of domestic work during the harvest | 0.908 b | <0.001 b | ||||||
Does not work | 22.2 | 18.2 | 27.6 | 20.3 | 41.2 | 2.1 | ||
1–3 h | 57.6 | 54.5 | 55.2 | 59.4 | 21.0 | 64.6 | ||
>3 h | 20.2 | 27.3 | 17.2 | 20.3 | 7.8 | 33.3 | ||
Weekly hours of leisure outside harvest period | 0.229 b | 0.619 b | ||||||
<6 h | 11.1 | 27.3 | 6.9 | 10.2 | 13.7 | 8.3 | ||
6–10 h | 33.3 | 45.4 | 31.0 | 32.2 | 29.4 | 37.5 | ||
>10 h | 55.6 | 27.3 | 62.1 | 57.6 | 56.9 | 54.2 | ||
Weekly hours of leisure during the harvest | 0.343 b | 0.523 a | ||||||
<6 h | 15.2 | 18.2 | 17.2 | 13.6 | 13.7 | 16.7 | ||
6–10 h | 39.4 | 63.6 | 34.5 | 37.3 | 35.3 | 43.7 | ||
>10 h | 45.4 | 18.2 | 48.3 | 49.1 | 51.0 | 39.6 |
Variables | Total (n = 99) | Age Group | Sex | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<14 Years (n = 11) | 14–15 Years (n = 29) | 16–17 Years (n = 59) | p-Value for Age | Male (n = 51) | Female (n = 48) | p-Value for Sex | ||
% | % | % | % | % | % | |||
Sowing tobacco | 0.436 b | 0.001 a | ||||||
No | 25.3 | 18.2 | 34.5 | 22.0 | 11.8 | 39.6 | ||
Yes | 74.7 | 81.8 | 65.5 | 78.0 | 88.2 | 60.4 | ||
Transplanting tobacco | 0.063 b | 0.686 a | ||||||
No | 17.2 | 27.3 | 27.6 | 10.2 | 15.7 | 18.7 | ||
Yes | 82.2 | 72.7 | 72.4 | 89.8 | 84.3 | 81.3 | ||
Harvesting tobacco in the last week * | 0.913 b | 0.934 a | ||||||
No | 14.3 | 18.2 | 14.3 | 13.6 | 14.0 | 14.6 | ||
Yes | 85.7 | 81.8 | 85.7 | 86.4 | 86.0 | 85.4 | ||
Harvesting wet leaves | 0.537 a | 0.287 a | ||||||
No | 38.4 | 45.5 | 44.8 | 33.9 | 33.3 | 43.7 | ||
Yes | 61.6 | 54.5 | 55.2 | 66.1 | 66.7 | 56.3 | ||
Carrying and transporting green leaves | 0.227 b | <0.001 a | ||||||
No | 37.4 | 45.5 | 48.3 | 30.5 | 45.1 | 79.2 | ||
Yes | 62.6 | 54.6 | 51.7 | 69.5 | 54.9 | 20.8 | ||
Lifting tobacco sticks (Around 12–14 Kg) | 0.292 b | 0.127 a | ||||||
No | 21.2 | 36.4 | 13.8 | 22.0 | 54.9 | 39.6 | ||
Yes | 78.8 | 63.6 | 86.2 | 78.0 | 45.1 | 60.4 | ||
Grading tobacco leaves | 0.915 a | 0.510 a | ||||||
No | 40.4 | 45.5 | 41.4 | 39.0 | 37.3 | 43.8 | ||
Yes | 59.6 | 54.5 | 58.6 | 61.0 | 62.7 | 56.2 | ||
Tying hands of tobacco | 1.000 b | 0.363 b | ||||||
No | 5.0 | 0 | 3.5 | 6.8 | 7.8 | 2.1 | ||
Yes | 95.0 | 100 | 96.5 | 93.2 | 92.2 | 97.9 | ||
Baling tobacco | 0.196 a | <0.001 a | ||||||
No | 37.4 | 54.5 | 44.8 | 30.5 | 19.6 | 56.3 | ||
Yes | 62.6 | 45.5 | 55.2 | 69.5 | 80.4 | 43.7 | ||
Transporting tobacco bales (around 50 Kg) | 0.065 b | 0.270 b | ||||||
No | 91.9 | 100 | 100 | 86.4 | 88.2 | 95.8 | ||
Yes | 8.1 | 0 | 0 | 13.6 | 11.8 | 4.2 | ||
Climbing high into the curing barn | 0.231 b | <0.001 a | ||||||
No | 62.6 | 81.8 | 51.7 | 64.4 | 45.1 | 81.3 | ||
Yes | 37.4 | 18.2 | 48.3 | 35.6 | 54.9 | 18.7 | ||
Taking care of the vegetable garden | 0.051 a | 0.007 a | ||||||
No | 59.6 | 45.5 | 44.8 | 69.5 | 72.6 | 45.8 | ||
Yes | 40.4 | 54.5 | 55.2 | 30.5 | 17.4 | 54.2 | ||
Tending animals | 0.004 b | 0.076 b | ||||||
No | 16.2 | 18.2 | 34.5 | 6.8 | 9.8 | 22.9 | ||
Yes | 83.8 | 81.8 | 65.5 | 93.2 | 90.2 | 77.1 | ||
Driving tractor/farm machines * | 0.443 b | <0.001 a | ||||||
No | 46.9 | 63.6 | 48.3 | 43.1 | 22.0 | 72.9 | ||
Yes | 53.1 | 36.4 | 51.7 | 56.9 | 88.0 | 27.1 | ||
Driving car/truck | 0.645 b | <0.001 b | ||||||
No | 76.8 | 81.8 | 82.8 | 72.9 | 58.8 | 95.8 | ||
Yes | 23.2 | 18.2 | 17.2 | 27.1 | 41.2 | 4.2 | ||
Cutting trees * | 0.293 b | <0.001 b | ||||||
Does not cut | 78.1 | 100 | 77.8 | 74.1 | 61.2 | 95.7 | ||
Cut with chainsaw | 15.6 | 0 | 11.1 | 20.7 | 30.6 | 0 | ||
Cut with other equipment | 6.3 | 0 | 11.1 | 5.2 | 8.2 | 4.3 | ||
Delimbing trees | 0.046 b | <0.001 a | ||||||
No | 68.7 | 100 | 65.5 | 64.4 | 52.9 | 85.4 | ||
Yes | 31.3 | 0 | 34.5 | 35.6 | 47.1 | 14.6 | ||
Controlling the temperature of the curing barn during the day | 0.077 a | 0.023 a | ||||||
No | 63.6 | 45.5 | 79.3 | 59.3 | 52.9 | 75.0 | ||
Yes | 36.4 | 54.5 | 20.7 | 40.7 | 47.1 | 25.0 | ||
Controlling the temperature of the curing barn during the night | 0.206 b | 0.016 b | ||||||
No | 89.9 | 81.8 | 96.5 | 88.1 | 82.4 | 97.9 | ||
Yes | 10.1 | 18.2 | 3.5 | 11.9 | 17.6 | 2.1 | ||
Maximum weight usually carried | 0.393 b | <0.001 b | ||||||
Does not carry weight | 61.7 | 81.8 | 69.0 | 54.2 | 45.0 | 79.2 | ||
Up to 49 Kg | 24.2 | 18.2 | 17.2 | 28.8 | 27.5 | 20.8 | ||
50 Kg or over | 14.1 | 0 | 13.8 | 17.0 | 27.5 | 0 | ||
Working in a bending position | <0.001 b | 0.071 a | ||||||
No | 21.2 | 72.7 | 13.8 | 15.3 | 17.6 | 25.0 | ||
Yes | 78.8 | 27.3 | 86.2 | 84.7 | 82.4 | 75.0 | ||
Wearing protective clothing during harvest | 0.102 b | 0.812 a | ||||||
No | 61.6 | 90.9 | 55.2 | 59.3 | 62.8 | 60.4 | ||
Yes | 38.4 | 9.1 | 44.8 | 40.7 | 37.2 | 39.6 | ||
Wearing gloves during harvest | 0.699 b | 0.088 a | ||||||
No | 50.5 | 63.6 | 48.3 | 49.1 | 58.8 | 41.7 | ||
Yes | 49.5 | 36.4 | 51.7 | 50.9 | 41.2 | 58.3 |
Variables | Total (n = 99) | Age Group | Sex | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<14 Years (n = 11) | 14–15 Years (n = 29) | 16–17 Years (n = 59) | p-Value for Age | Male (n = 51) | Female (n = 48) | p-Value for Sex | ||
% | % | % | % | % | % | |||
Preparing mixture * | 0.080 b | 0.013 b | ||||||
Does not work with pesticide | 50.0 | 81.8 | 48.3 | 44.8 | 42.0 | 58.3 | ||
Does not prepare | 38.8 | 18.2 | 48.3 | 38.0 | 38.0 | 39.6 | ||
Prepares | 11.2 | 0 | 3.4 | 17.2 | 20.0 | 2.1 | ||
Applying * | 0.059 b | 0.043 b | ||||||
Does not work with pesticide | 50.0 | 81.8 | 48.3 | 44.8 | 42.0 | 58.3 | ||
Does not apply | 37.8 | 18.2 | 48.3 | 36.2 | 38.0 | 37.5 | ||
Applies | 12.2 | 0 | 3.4 | 19.0 | 20.0 | 4.2 | ||
Cleaning equipment used to apply * | 0.112 b | 0.040 b | ||||||
Does not work with pesticide | 50.0 | 81.8 | 48.3 | 44.8 | 42.0 | 58.3 | ||
Does not clean | 44.9 | 18.2 | 51.7 | 46.6 | 48.0 | 41.7 | ||
Cleans | 5.1 | 0 | 0 | 8.6 | 10.0 | 0 | ||
Washing clothes contaminated | 0.123 b | 0.010 b | ||||||
Does not work with pesticide | 50.0 | 81.8 | 48.3 | 44.8 | 42.0 | 58.3 | ||
Does not wash | 42.9 | 18.2 | 37.9 | 50.0 | 56.0 | 29.2 | ||
Washes | 7.1 | 0 | 13.8 | 5.2 | 2.0 | 12.5 | ||
Re-entering the treated field * | 0.281 b | 0.261 b | ||||||
Does not work with pesticide | 50.0 | 81.8 | 48.3 | 44.8 | 42.0 | 58.3 | ||
Does not go in | 40.8 | 18.2 | 44.8 | 43.1 | 46.0 | 35.4 | ||
Goes in | 9.2 | 0 | 6.9 | 12.1 | 12.0 | 6.3 |
Variables | Total (n = 12) | Age Group | Sex | |||||
<14 Years (n = 0) | 14–15 Years (n = 1) | 16–17 Years (n = 11) | p-Value for Age | Male (n = 6) | Female (n = 6) | p-Value for Sex | ||
% | % | % | % | % | % | |||
Urinary cotinine ** | 0.500 b | 0.286 b | ||||||
<20 ng/mL | 16.7 | - | 0 | 18.2 | 0 | 33.3 | ||
20–100 ng/mL | 33.3 | - | 100 | 27.3 | 50.0 | 16.7 | ||
>100 ng/mL | 50.0 | - | 0 | 54.5 | 50.0 | 50.0 | ||
Variables | Total (n = 99) | Age Group | Sex | |||||
<14 Years (n = 11) | 14–15 Years (n = 29) | 16–17 Years (n = 59) | p-Value for Age | Male (n = 51) | Female (n = 48) | p-Value for Sex | ||
% | % | % | % | % | % | |||
GTS in lifetime * | 0.501 b | 0.197 b | ||||||
Never | 75.5 | 72.7 | 85.7 | 71.1 | 82.4 | 68.0 | ||
1–2 times | 11.2 | 18.2 | 3.6 | 13.6 | 9.8 | 12.8 | ||
3 times or more | 13.3 | 9.1 | 10.7 | 15.3 | 7.8 | 19.2 | ||
Pesticide poisoning in lifetime | 1.000 b | 0.243 b | ||||||
No | 97.0 | 100 | 96.5 | 96.6 | 94.1 | 100 | ||
Yes | 3.0 | 0 | 3.5 | 3.4 | 5.9 | 0 | ||
Coughing without having a cold | 0.048 b | 0.679 a | ||||||
No | 83.8 | 72.7 | 96.5 | 79.7 | 82.4 | 85.4 | ||
Yes | 16.2 | 27.3 | 3.5 | 20.3 | 17.6 | 14.6 | ||
Wheezing in the last 12 months | 0.835 b | 0.105 b | ||||||
No | 93.9 | 90.9 | 96.5 | 93.2 | 98.0 | 89.6 | ||
Yes | 6.1 | 9.1 | 3.5 | 6.8 | 2.0 | 10.4 | ||
Neck pain in the last year | 0.324 b | 0.110 b | ||||||
No | 97.0 | 90.9 | 100 | 96.6 | 100 | 93.7 | ||
Yes | 3.0 | 9.1 | 0 | 3.4 | 0 | 6.3 | ||
Thoracic spine pain in the last year | 0.396 b | 0.524 a | ||||||
No | 73.7 | 90.9 | 69.0 | 72.9 | 76.5 | 70.8 | ||
Yes | 26.3 | 9.1 | 31.0 | 27.1 | 23.5 | 29.2 | ||
Low back pain in the last year | 0.041 b | 0.979 a | ||||||
No | 70.7 | 81.8 | 86.2 | 61.0 | 70.6 | 70.8 | ||
Yes | 29.3 | 18.2 | 13.8 | 39.0 | 29.4 | 29.2 |
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Fassa, A.G.; Faria, N.M.X.; Szortyka, A.L.S.C.; Meucci, R.D.; Fiori, N.S.; Carvalho, M.P.d. Child Labor in Family Tobacco Farms in Southern Brazil: Occupational Exposure and Related Health Problems. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 12255. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212255
Fassa AG, Faria NMX, Szortyka ALSC, Meucci RD, Fiori NS, Carvalho MPd. Child Labor in Family Tobacco Farms in Southern Brazil: Occupational Exposure and Related Health Problems. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(22):12255. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212255
Chicago/Turabian StyleFassa, Anaclaudia Gastal, Neice Muller Xavier Faria, Ana Laura Sica Cruzeiro Szortyka, Rodrigo Dalke Meucci, Nadia Spada Fiori, and Maitê Peres de Carvalho. 2021. "Child Labor in Family Tobacco Farms in Southern Brazil: Occupational Exposure and Related Health Problems" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 22: 12255. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212255