A Typology of Poles’ Attitudes toward COVID-19 during the First Wave of the Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
- Focus 1—indifferent: people with this attitude were not afraid for their health or that of their loved ones (affective component); they were indifferent to the restrictions introduced (cognitive component); they followed the recommendations selectively and mitigated them (behavioral component).
- Focus 2—involved: people with this attitude were concerned about their health and the health of their loved ones (affective component); they almost uncritically supported the restrictions introduced and wished them to be maintained (cognitive component); they followed the recommendations quite closely (behavioral component).
- Focus 3—cautious: people displaying this attitude were afraid for their own health and the health of their loved ones, and were more afraid than others of losing their job and a deterioration in their financial situation (affective component); perhaps in connection with these fears, they believed that some of the restrictions introduced were too strict and did not want them to be prolonged, not least because of the negative effects on the economy (cognitive component); they followed the government’s recommendations more than indifferent people, but not as rigorously and uncritically as people in the involved group (behavioral component).
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Profile Characteristics | n | % |
---|---|---|
Gender | ||
Female | 523 | 52.2 |
Male | 478 | 47.8 |
Age | ||
18–29 | 310 | 31.0 |
30–39 | 271 | 27.1 |
40–49 | 185 | 18.5 |
50–59 | 137 | 13.7 |
60+ | 98 | 9.8 |
Education | ||
Primary, lower secondary, vocational | 120 | 12.0 |
Secondary education | 498 | 49.8 |
Higher education | 383 | 38.3 |
Place of residence | ||
Village | 343 | 34.3 |
City of up to 19,999 | 115 | 11.5 |
City 20,000–199,999 | 201 | 20.1 |
City 200,000–499,999 | 204 | 20.4 |
City of over 500,000 | 138 | 13.8 |
Frequency of participation in religious practices | ||
Several times a week | 49 | 4.9 |
Once a week | 290 | 29.0 |
1–2 times a month | 116 | 11.6 |
Several times a year | 222 | 22.2 |
Once every few years | 82 | 8.2 |
Not at all | 242 | 24.2 |
Financial situation | ||
Very good | 88 | 8.8 |
Good | 369 | 36.9 |
Moderate | 456 | 45.6 |
Poor | 69 | 6.9 |
Very poor | 19 | 1.9 |
Self-assessment of health | ||
Very good | 283 | 28.3 |
Good | 481 | 48.1 |
Moderate | 196 | 19.6 |
Bad | 41 | 4.1 |
Life satisfaction | ||
Satisfied | 754 | 75.3 |
Dissatisfied | 163 | 16.3 |
Hard to say | 84 | 8.4 |
Propensity to take risks | ||
Yes | 297 | 29.7 |
No | 704 | 70.3 |
Political preference | ||
EC Law and Justice—ruling party | 243 | 24.3 |
EC Civic Coalition—main opposition | 155 | 15.5 |
EC Democratic Left Alliance | 116 | 11.6 |
EC Freedom and Independence Confederation | 94 | 9.4 |
EC Polish People’s Party | 65 | 6.5 |
Other | 15 | 1.5 |
None | 131 | 13.1 |
Hard to say | 182 | 18.2 |
Appendix B
Assessed Statements on the Scale from –2 (Strongly Disagree) to +2 (Strongly Agree): | Focus | ||
---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | |
Type of Attitude | |||
Indifferent (n = 246) | Involved (n = 481) | Cautious (n = 274) | |
Ultimate Focus Centers | |||
I feel fear for my health | 0 | 1 | 1 |
I feel fear for the health and life of my loved ones | 0 | 1 | 1 |
I am afraid that I will be financially broken by the prolonged pandemic | 0 | 1 | 1 |
I am afraid of losing my job because of the situation | 0 | 0 | 1 |
The prolonged period of social isolation is negatively affecting my mental well-being | 0 | 1 | 1 |
The restrictions introduced by the government in the fight against the pandemic are too strict | 0 | –1 | 0 |
People leaving the house for a walk are acting irresponsibly in the present situation | 0 | 1 | 0 |
The period of social restrictions imposed by the government in the fight against the virus should not be extended any further | 0 | –1 | 0 |
I believe that, for the good of the economy, decisions should not be taken to close borders and many institutions | 0 | –1 | 0 |
The global economy will recover quickly after the pandemic has been fought | 0 | –1 | 0 |
The media have unnecessarily spread panic in society by exaggerating the situation | 1 | 0 | 1 |
Thanks to the pandemic, people will understand what is really important in life | 0 | 1 | 1 |
I strictly adhere to the restrictions imposed by the government in the fight against the pandemic | 0 | 1 | 1 |
I have acquired appropriate food supplies to allow myself to stay at home for a long period of time | 0 | 1 | 1 |
I have been wearing a mask for a long time when leaving the house | 0 | 1 | 1 |
In the current situation, I would not offer my hand to greet anyone except members of my household | 0 | 1 | 1 |
I meet my friends and family outside my household quite regularly | –1 | –2 | 0 |
I follow information about the pandemic daily, and monitor incidence statistics | 0 | 1 | 1 |
If I developed coronavirus symptoms, I would immediately contact the appropriate infectious disease hospital or sanitary department | 1 | 2 | 1 |
I would get vaccinated if a coronavirus vaccine was already available | 0 | 1 | 1 |
I am now trying to take care of my immunity better by engaging in appropriate healthy behavior | 0 | 1 | 1 |
I try to go for a walk regularly or do other outdoor activities | 0 | –1 | 0 |
At Easter, I adhered less strictly to the recommendations about not leaving home and not meeting other people | 0 | –1 | 0 |
I know exactly what to do if I observe coronavirus symptoms in myself or members of my household | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Coronavirus is nothing more than a worse type of flu | 0 | –1 | 0 |
Appendix C
Statement | Strongly Agree | Agree | Hard to Say | Disagree | Strongly Disagree |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Percentage of Affirmative Answers | |||||
I feel fear for my health | 22.8 | 41.3 | 17.5 | 14.2 | 4.3 |
I feel fear for the health and life of my loved ones | 36.8 | 39.0 | 13.5 | 7.4 | 3.4 |
I am afraid that I will be financially broken by the prolonged pandemic | 27.3 | 33.6 | 21.7 | 13.7 | 3.8 |
I am afraid of losing my job because of the situation | 22.8 | 27.2 | 21.9 | 18.7 | 9.5 |
The prolonged period of social isolation is negatively affecting my mental well-being | 30.5 | 38.3 | 14.5 | 13.0 | 3.8 |
The restrictions introduced by the government in the fight against the pandemic are too strict | 9.4 | 19.1 | 23.5 | 30.7 | 17.4 |
People leaving the house for a walk are acting irresponsibly in the present situation | 20.7 | 28.4 | 27.4 | 18.3 | 5.3 |
The period of social restrictions imposed by the government in the fight against the virus should not be extended any further | 10.3 | 17.6 | 33.5 | 26.3 | 12.4 |
I believe that, for the good of the economy, decisions should not be taken to close borders and many institutions | 8.8 | 17.4 | 27.7 | 27.9 | 18.3 |
The global economy will recover quickly after the pandemic has been fought | 5.3 | 13.3 | 34.5 | 34.4 | 12.6 |
The media have unnecessarily spread panic in society by exaggerating the situation | 21.0 | 28.6 | 24.9 | 18.5 | 7.1 |
Thanks to the pandemic, people will understand what is really important in life | 20.9 | 36.3 | 25.1 | 12.7 | 5.1 |
I strictly adhere to the restrictions imposed by the government in the fight against the pandemic | 31.5 | 46.8 | 14.0 | 5.9 | 1.9 |
I have acquired appropriate food supplies to allow myself to stay at home for a long period of time | 22.8 | 40.6 | 13.7 | 17.6 | 5.4 |
I have been wearing a mask for a long time when leaving the house | 22.1 | 34.2 | 13.2 | 22.2 | 8.4 |
In the current situation, I would not offer my hand to greet anyone except members of my household | 37.8 | 30.7 | 18.8 | 9.2 | 3.6 |
I meet my friends and family outside my household quite regularly | 4.3 | 9.1 | 11.5 | 30.0 | 45.2 |
I follow information about the pandemic daily, and monitor incidence statistics | 30.9 | 40.3 | 13.4 | 11.2 | 4.3 |
If I developed coronavirus symptoms, I would immediately contact the appropriate infectious disease hospital or sanitary department | 49.6 | 31.7 | 14.0 | 3.1 | 1.7 |
I would get vaccinated if a coronavirus vaccine was already available | 33.5 | 28.4 | 22.1 | 8.3 | 7.8 |
I am now trying to take care of my immunity better by engaging in appropriate healthy behavior | 21.2 | 44.8 | 21.6 | 10.5 | 2.0 |
I try to go for a walk regularly or do other outdoor activities | 9.7 | 24.0 | 18.3 | 30.5 | 17.6 |
At Easter, I adhered less strictly to the recommendations about not leaving home and not meeting other people | 10.6 | 16.7 | 13.4 | 22.8 | 36.6 |
I know exactly what to do if I observe coronavirus symptoms in myself or members of my household | 27.6 | 42.9 | 20.4 | 6.8 | 2.4 |
Coronavirus is nothing more than a worse type of flu | 8.3 | 22.3 | 25.7 | 26.4 | 17.4 |
Appendix D
Cluster 1 Indifferent (n = 246) | Cluster 2 Involved (n = 481) | Cluster 3 Cautious (n = 274) | Statistics | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Profile Characteristics | n | % | n | % | n | % | Cramer’s V | p | Holm–Bonferroni Correction p |
Gender | 0.140 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
Female | 102 | 41.5 | 282 | 58.6 | 139 | 50.7 | |||
Male | 144 | 58.5 | 199 | 41.4 | 135 | 49.3 | |||
100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | |||||||
Age | 0.065 | 0.381 | 0.762 | ||||||
18–29 | 75 | 30.5 | 144 | 29.9 | 91 | 33.2 | |||
30–39 | 73 | 29.7 | 120 | 24.9 | 78 | 28.5 | |||
40–49 | 46 | 18.7 | 86 | 17.9 | 53 | 19.3 | |||
50–59 | 32 | 13.0 | 75 | 15.6 | 30 | 10.9 | |||
60+ | 20 | 8.1 | 56 | 11.6 | 22 | 8.0 | |||
100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | |||||||
Education | 0.074 | 0.026 | 0.130 | ||||||
Primary. lower secondary. vocational | 34 | 13.8 | 52 | 10.8 | 34 | 12.4 | |||
Secondary education | 119 | 48.4 | 224 | 46.6 | 155 | 56.6 | |||
Higher education | 93 | 37.8 | 205 | 42.6 | 155 | 31.0 | |||
100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | |||||||
Place of residence | 0.085 | 0.070 | 0.280 | ||||||
Village | 84 | 34.1 | 143 | 29.7 | 116 | 42.3 | |||
City of up to 19,999 | 30 | 12.2 | 55 | 11.4 | 30 | 10.9 | |||
City 20,000–199,999 | 44 | 17.9 | 107 | 22.2 | 50 | 18.2 | |||
City 200,000–499,999 | 55 | 22.4 | 104 | 21.6 | 45 | 16.4 | |||
City of over 500,000 | 33 | 13.4 | 72 | 15.0 | 33 | 12.0 | |||
100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | |||||||
Frequency of participation in religious practices | 0.126 | < 0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
Several times a week | 12 | 4.9 | 12 | 2.5 | 25 | 9.1 | |||
Once a week | 77 | 31.3 | 140 | 29.9 | 69 | 25.2 | |||
1–2 times a month | 24 | 9.8 | 45 | 9.4 | 47 | 17.2 | |||
Several times a year | 50 | 20.3 | 116 | 24.1 | 56 | 20.4 | |||
Once every few years | 20 | 8.2 | 44 | 9.1 | 18 | 6.6 | |||
Not at all | 63 | 25.6 | 120 | 24.9 | 59 | 21.5 | |||
100 | 100 | 100 | |||||||
Financial situation | 0.112 | 0.001 | 0.007 | ||||||
Very good | 28 | 11.4 | 22 | 4.6 | 38 | 13.9 | |||
Good | 90 | 36.6 | 178 | 37.0 | 101 | 36.9 | |||
Moderate | 103 | 41.9 | 237 | 49.3 | 116 | 42.3 | |||
Poor | 18 | 7.3 | 36 | 7.5 | 15 | 5.5 | |||
Very poor | 7 | 2.8 | 8 | 1.7 | 4 | 1.5 | |||
100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | |||||||
Self-assessment of health | 0.096 | 0.005 | 0.030 | ||||||
Good or very good | 175 | 71.1 | 365 | 75.9 | 224 | 81.7 | |||
Moderate | 62 | 25.2 | 93 | 19.3 | 41 | 15.0 | |||
Bad | 9 | 3.7 | 23 | 4.8 | 9 | 3.3 | |||
100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | |||||||
Life satisfaction | 0.065 | 0.074 | 0.280 | ||||||
Satisfied | 170 | 69.1 | 378 | 78.6 | 206 | 75.2 | |||
Dissatisfied | 48 | 19.5 | 68 | 14.1 | 47 | 17.2 | |||
Hard to say | 28 | 11.4 | 35 | 7.3 | 21 | 7.7 | |||
100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | |||||||
Propensity to take risks | 0.009 | 0.963 | 0.963 | ||||||
Yes | 72 | 29.3 | 142 | 29.5 | 83 | 30.3 | |||
No | 174 | 70.7 | 339 | 70.5 | 191 | 69.7 | |||
100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | |||||||
Political preference | 0.134 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
EC Law and Justice – ruling party | 49 | 19.9 | 131 | 27.2 | 63 | 23.0 | |||
EC Civic Coalition – main opposition | 27 | 11.0 | 75 | 15.6 | 53 | 19.3 | |||
EC Democratic Left Alliance | 28 | 11.4 | 60 | 12.5 | 28 | 10.2 | |||
EC Freedom and Independence Confederation | 34 | 13.8 | 24 | 5.0 | 36 | 13.1 | |||
EC Polish People’s Party | 16 | 6.5 | 30 | 6.2 | 19 | 6.9 | |||
Other | 3 | 1.2 | 9 | 1.9 | 3 | 1.1 | |||
None | 40 | 16.3 | 59 | 12.3 | 32 | 11.7 | |||
Hard to say | 49 | 19.9 | 93 | 19.3 | 40 | 14.6 | |||
100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
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Statement | Focus | ||
---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | |
Type of Attitude | |||
Indifferent (n = 246) | Involved (n = 481) | Cautious (n = 274) | |
Percentage of Affirmative Answers | |||
I feel fear for my health | 19.9 | 79.0 | 77.4 |
I feel fear for the health and life of my loved ones | 40.2 | 89.6 | 83.2 |
I am afraid that I will be financially broken by the prolonged pandemic | 32.5 | 65.7 | 77.7 |
I am afraid of losing my job because of the situation | 27.2 | 51.6 | 67.5 |
The prolonged period of social isolation is negatively affecting my mental well-being | 45.1 | 73.4 | 81.8 |
The restrictions introduced by the government in the fight against the pandemic are too strict | 35.8 | 10.8 | 52.9 |
People leaving the house for a walk are acting irresponsibly in the present situation | 23.2 | 61.1 | 51.1 |
The period of social restrictions imposed by the government in the fight against the virus should not be extended any further | 31.7 | 11.9 | 52.6 |
I believe that, for the good of the economy, decisions should not be taken to close borders and many institutions | 27.2 | 8.7 | 55.8 |
The global economy will recover quickly after the pandemic has been fought | 28.9 | 22.2 | 43.8 |
The media have unnecessarily spread panic in society by exaggerating the situation | 54.1 | 37.6 | 66.4 |
Thanks to the pandemic, people will understand what is really important in life | 29.7 | 66.9 | 64.6 |
I strictly adhere to the restrictions imposed by the government in the fight against the pandemic | 43.5 | 96.3 | 77.7 |
I have acquired appropriate food supplies to allow myself to stay at home for a long period of time | 31.3 | 75.5 | 70.8 |
I have been wearing a mask for a long time when leaving the house | 18.3 | 69.0 | 67.9 |
In the current situation, I would not offer my hand 1 to greet anyone except members of my household | 30.9 | 84.8 | 73.4 |
I meet my friends and family outside my household quite regularly | 13.4 | 1.9 | 33.6 |
I follow information about the pandemic daily, and monitor incidence statistics | 36.2 | 87.9 | 73.0 |
If I developed coronavirus symptoms, I would immediately contact the appropriate infectious disease hospital or sanitary department | 53.3 | 94.8 | 82.5 |
I would get vaccinated if a coronavirus vaccine was already available | 29.7 | 76.3 | 65.3 |
I am now trying to take care of my immunity better by engaging in appropriate healthy behavior | 32.5 | 74.6 | 80.7 |
I try to go for a walk regularly or do other outdoor activities | 33.3 | 20.0 | 58.0 |
At Easter, I adhered less strictly to the recommendations about not leaving home and not meeting other people | 26.0 | 12.5 | 54.4 |
I know exactly what to do if I observe coronavirus symptoms in myself or members of my household | 48.8 | 80.9 | 71.5 |
Coronavirus is nothing more than a worse type of flu | 33.3 | 16.4 | 52.9 |
Profile Characteristics | Cluster 1 Indifferent (n = 246) | Cluster 2 Involved (n = 481) | Cluster 3 Cautious (n = 274) | Statistics | Holm-Bonferroni Correction p | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | n | % | Cramer’s V | p | ||
Gender | 0.140 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
Female | 102 | 19.5% | 282 | 53.9% | 139 | 26.6% | |||
Male | 144 | 30.1% | 199 | 41.6% | 135 | 28.2% | |||
Age | 0.065 | 0.381 | 0.762 | ||||||
18–29 | 75 | 24.2% | 144 | 46.5% | 91 | 29.4% | |||
30–39 | 73 | 26.9% | 120 | 44.3% | 78 | 28.8% | |||
40–49 | 46 | 24.9% | 86 | 46.5% | 53 | 28.6% | |||
50–59 | 32 | 23.4% | 75 | 54.7% | 30 | 21.9% | |||
60+ | 20 | 20.4% | 56 | 57.1% | 22 | 22.4% | |||
Education | 0.074 | 0.026 | 0.130 | ||||||
Primary, lower secondary, vocational | 34 | 28.3% | 52 | 43.3% | 34 | 28.3% | |||
Secondary education | 119 | 23.9% | 224 | 45.0% | 155 | 31.1% | |||
Higher education | 93 | 24.3% | 205 | 53.5% | 155 | 22.2% | |||
Place of residence | 0.085 | 0.070 | 0.280 | ||||||
Village | 84 | 24.5% | 143 | 41.7% | 116 | 33.8% | |||
City of up to 19,999 | 30 | 26.1% | 55 | 47.8% | 30 | 26.1% | |||
City 20,000–199,999 | 44 | 21.9% | 107 | 53.2% | 50 | 24.9% | |||
City 200,000–499,999 | 55 | 27.0% | 104 | 51.0% | 45 | 22.1% | |||
City of over 500,000 | 33 | 23.9% | 72 | 52.2% | 33 | 23.9% | |||
Frequency of participation in religious practices | 0.126 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
Several times a week | 12 | 24.5 | 12 | 24.5 | 25 | 51.0 | |||
Once a week | 77 | 26.6 | 140 | 49.7 | 69 | 23.8 | |||
1-2 times a month | 24 | 20.7 | 45 | 38.8 | 47 | 40.5 | |||
Several times a year | 50 | 22.5 | 116 | 52.3 | 56 | 25.2 | |||
Once every few years | 20 | 24.4 | 44 | 53.7 | 18 | 22.0 | |||
Not at all | 63 | 26.0 | 120 | 49.6 | 59 | 24.4 | |||
Financial situation | 0.112 | 0.001 | 0.007 | ||||||
Very good | 28 | 31.8 | 22 | 25.0 | 38 | 43.2 | |||
Good | 90 | 24.4 | 178 | 48.2 | 101 | 27.4 | |||
Moderate | 103 | 22.6 | 237 | 52.0 | 116 | 25.4 | |||
Poor | 18 | 26.1 | 36 | 52.2 | 15 | 21.7 | |||
Very poor | 7 | 36.8 | 8 | 42.1 | 4 | 21.1 | |||
Self-assessment of health | 0.096 | 0.005 | 0.030 | ||||||
Very good | 78 | 27.6% | 117 | 41.3% | 88 | 31.1% | |||
Good | 97 | 20.2% | 248 | 51.6% | 136 | 28.3% | |||
Moderate | 62 | 31.6% | 93 | 47.4% | 41 | 20.9% | |||
Bad | 9 | 22.0% | 23 | 56.1% | 9 | 22.0% | |||
Life satisfaction | 0.065 | 0.074 | 0.280 | ||||||
Satisfied | 170 | 22.5% | 378 | 50.1% | 206 | 27.3% | |||
Dissatisfied | 48 | 29.4% | 68 | 41.7% | 47 | 28.8% | |||
Hard to say | 28 | 33.3% | 35 | 41.7% | 21 | 25.0% | |||
Propensity to take risks | 0.009 | 0.963 | 0.963 | ||||||
Yes | 72 | 24.2% | 142 | 47.8% | 83 | 27.9% | |||
No | 174 | 24.7% | 339 | 48.2% | 191 | 27.1% | |||
Political preference | 0.134 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
EC Law and Justice – ruling party | 49 | 20.2% | 131 | 53.9% | 63 | 25.9% | |||
EC Civic Coalition – main opposition | 27 | 17.4% | 75 | 48.4% | 53 | 34.2% | |||
EC Democratic Left Alliance | 28 | 24.1% | 60 | 51.7% | 28 | 24.1% | |||
EC Freedom and Independence Confederation | 34 | 36.2% | 24 | 25.5% | 36 | 38.3% | |||
EC Polish People’s Party | 16 | 24.6% | 30 | 46.2% | 19 | 29.2% | |||
Other | 3 | 20.0% | 9 | 60.0% | 3 | 20.0% | |||
None | 40 | 30.5% | 59 | 45.0% | 32 | 24.4% | |||
Hard to say | 49 | 26.9% | 93 | 51.1% | 40 | 22.0% |
Independent (Categorical) Variable: | Dependent variable | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Analysis 1 Indifferent vs. Others | Analysis 2 Involved vs. Others | Analysis 3 Cautious vs. Others | |||||||
Odds Ratio | 95% CI | p | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | p | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | p | |
Gender (F–M) | 1.769 | (1.32–2.38) | <0.001 | 0.624 | (0.48– 0.81) | <0.001 | 1.045 | (0.79– 1.39) | 0.759 |
Age (ascending) | 0.960 | (0.85– 1.09) | 0.518 | 1.039 | (0.93– 1.15) | 0.479 | 0.991 | (0.88–1.12) | 0.885 |
Education (ascending) | 0.983 | (0.87– 1.11) | 0.778 | 1.109 | (1.00–1.24) | 0.060 | 0.899 | (0.80– 1.01) | 0.076 |
Size of place of residence (ascending) | 1.030 | (0.93– 1.14) | 0.578 | 1.074 | (0.98– 1.17) | 0.118 | 0.892 | (0.81– 0.99) | 0.026 |
Frequency of participation in religious practices (ascending) | 1.011 | (0.92– 1.11) | 0.813 | 0.940 | (0.87–1.02) | 0.127 | 1.067 | (0.98–1.17) | 0.153 |
Financial situation (ascending) | 1.152 | (0.94– 1.41) | 0.169 | 0.748 | (0.63– 0.89) | 0.001 | 1.243 | (1.02–1.51) | 0.029 |
Self-assessment of health (bad–good) | 1.014 | (0.82– 1.26) | 0.896 | 0.866 | (0.72– 1.05) | 0.135 | 1.181 | (0.96–1.46) | 0.123 |
Life satisfaction (ascending) | 0.809 | (0.69–0.95) | 0.011 | 1.282 | (1.10–1.49) | 0.001 | 0.911 | (0.77–1.07) | 0.262 |
Propensity to take risks (no–yes) | 1.018 | (0.74–1.40) | 0.916 | 0.912 | (0.69–1.21) | 0.520 | 1.104 | (0.81–1.50) | 0.531 |
Constant | 0.179 | 0.011 | 2.335 | 0.154 | 0.187 | 0.011 |
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Boguszewski, R.; Makowska, M.; Podkowińska, M. A Typology of Poles’ Attitudes toward COVID-19 during the First Wave of the Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2002. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042002
Boguszewski R, Makowska M, Podkowińska M. A Typology of Poles’ Attitudes toward COVID-19 during the First Wave of the Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(4):2002. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042002
Chicago/Turabian StyleBoguszewski, Rafał, Marta Makowska, and Monika Podkowińska. 2021. "A Typology of Poles’ Attitudes toward COVID-19 during the First Wave of the Pandemic" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 4: 2002. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042002
APA StyleBoguszewski, R., Makowska, M., & Podkowińska, M. (2021). A Typology of Poles’ Attitudes toward COVID-19 during the First Wave of the Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4), 2002. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042002