The Impacts of Illegal Toxic Waste Dumping on Children’s Health: A Review and Case Study from Pasir Gudang, Malaysia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Source
2.3. Health Risk Assessment
- exposed population
- exposure pathways
- source of exposure
- time of exposure
- number of people affected
2.4. Wireless Information System for Emergency Responders (WISER) Protective Distance and Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) Backward Trajectory
3. Results
3.1. Case Study
3.1.1. First Wave
3.1.2. Second Wave
3.1.3. Response and Mitigation
3.2. Health Risk Assessment Results
3.2.1. Issue Identification
3.2.2. Hazard Identification and Dose–Response Assessment
3.2.3. Environmental Exposure
3.2.4. Risk Characterization
3.2.5. Environmental Fate
3.3. WISER Protective Distance and Backward Wind Trajectories
4. Discussion
4.1. Respiratory Diseases
4.2. Cancer
4.3. Mental Health
4.4. Limitations
4.5. Policy Implication
4.6. Recommendations for Future Work
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Chemical | Exposure Route | Symptoms | Lowest Level for Nonlethal Irreversible Damage at 10 to 30 min Airborne Exposure Level | Cancer Risk (IARC) | Inhalation Unit Risk for Cancer |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Benzene | Inhalation, skin absorption, ingestion, skin, and/or eye contact | Irritation eyes, skin, and nose; respiratory difficulty; dizziness; headache; nausea; staggered gait; anorexia; lassitude (weakness and exhaustion); dermatitis; bone marrow depression | 1100–2000 ppm | Carcinogenic to humans. May cause leukemia | 2.2 × 10−6 per µg/m3 |
Acrylonitrile | Inhalation, skin absorption, ingestion, skin and/or eye contact | Irritation eyes, skin; asphyxia; headache; sneezing; nausea; vomiting; lassitude (weakness, exhaustion); dizziness; skin vesiculation; scaling dermatitis | 3.2–8.6 ppm | Possibly carcinogenic to humans. Increase risk of brain tumor, lung and bowel cancer | 6.8 × 10−5 per µg/m3 |
Acrolein | Inhalation, ingestion, skin and/or eye contact | Irritation eyes, skin, and mucous membrane; decreased pulmonary function; delayed pulmonary edema; chronic respiratory disease | 0.18–0.44 ppm | The agent is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans | - |
Hydrogen Chloride | Inhalation, ingestion, skin and/or eye contact | Irritation nose, throat, and eye; cough; choking; dermatitis; skin burns; contact with refrigerated liquid may cause frostbite | 43–100 ppm | The agent is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans | - |
Methane | Inhalation, ingestion, skin and/or eye contact | Breathing difficulties (i.e., suffocation and increased breathing rate); nausea and vomiting; loss of consciousness; weakness; headaches and dizziness; loss of coordination | NA | The agent is probably not carcinogenic to humans | - |
Toluene | Inhalation, ingestion, skin and/or eye contact | Headaches; dizziness; loss of consciousness; loss of coordination; sleepiness | 760–1400 ppm | Not classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans | - |
Xylene | Inhalation, ingestion, skin and/or eye contact | Irritation of eyes and throat; headaches; dizziness; sleepiness; trembling; lack of coordination | 1300–2500 ppm | Not classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans | - |
Ethylbenzene | Inhalation, ingestion, skin and/or eye contact | Irritation of the eyes and/or throat; chest constriction; dizziness | 1600–2900 ppm | Possibly carcinogenic to humans | NA |
d-limonene | Inhalation, ingestion, skin and/or eye contact | Breathing difficulties; skin irritation | NA | Not classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans | - |
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Ibrahim, M.F.; Hod, R.; Toha, H.R.; Mohammed Nawi, A.; Idris, I.B.; Mohd Yusoff, H.; Sahani, M. The Impacts of Illegal Toxic Waste Dumping on Children’s Health: A Review and Case Study from Pasir Gudang, Malaysia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2221. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052221
Ibrahim MF, Hod R, Toha HR, Mohammed Nawi A, Idris IB, Mohd Yusoff H, Sahani M. The Impacts of Illegal Toxic Waste Dumping on Children’s Health: A Review and Case Study from Pasir Gudang, Malaysia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(5):2221. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052221
Chicago/Turabian StyleIbrahim, Mohd Faiz, Rozita Hod, Haidar Rizal Toha, Azmawati Mohammed Nawi, Idayu Badilla Idris, Hanizah Mohd Yusoff, and Mazrura Sahani. 2021. "The Impacts of Illegal Toxic Waste Dumping on Children’s Health: A Review and Case Study from Pasir Gudang, Malaysia" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 5: 2221. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052221