Occupational Paraquat and Glyphosate Exposure May Decline Renal Functions among Rural Farming Communities in Sri Lanka
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Locations and Populations
2.2. Sample Collection
2.3. Determination of SCr, UCr and eGFR
2.4. Determination of Urinary Microalbumin
2.5. Determination of Urinary Glyphosate and Paraquat
2.6. Measurement of Renal Injury Biomarkers
2.7. Statistical Analysis
2.8. Ethics Statement
3. Results
3.1. Exposure Assessment of Urinary Glyphosate and Paraquat
3.2. Assessment of Renal Biomarkers
3.3. Assessment of Kidney Injury Using Urinary Biomarkers
3.4. Association between Herbicide Exposure and Kidney Functions
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
CKDu | Chronic Kidney Disease of unknown etiology |
KIM-1 | Kidney Injury Molecule-1 |
SCr | Serum Creatinine |
eGFR | Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate |
ACR | Albumin Creatinine Ratio |
NGAL | Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin |
CINAC | Chronic Interstitial Nephritis in Agricultural Communities |
MEN | Meso American Nephropathy |
CKD-EPI | CKD-epidemiology collaboration equation |
ELISA | Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay |
HPLC | High-Performance Liquid Chromatography |
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Characteristics | Total (n = 210) | Matara (n = 75) | Rahathangama (n = 69) | Warunagama (n = 66) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (Mean ± SEM) | 44.39 ± 0.93 | 39 ± 1.4 | 48 ± 1.5 | 47 ± 1.5 | <0.0001 |
Smoking (%) | |||||
Yes | 30.46 | 25.3 | 21.74 | 45.45 | 0.006 |
Alcohol consumption (%) | |||||
Yes | 33.33 | 25.3 | 14.49 | 62.12 | <0.0001 |
Chewing betel (%) | |||||
Yes | 44.76 | 16.00 | 60.87 | 60.61 | <0.0001 |
Drinking water (%)—current | |||||
Surface water | 40.49 | 4.00 | 75.36 | 4.55 | <0.0001 |
Drinking water (%)—past | |||||
Surface water | 62.86 | 9.33 | 92.75 | 92.43 | <0.0001 |
Intensive Herbicide use (%) | |||||
Yes | 53.33 | 10.66 | 81.20 | 72.70 | <0.0001 |
Fertilizer use (%) | |||||
Yes | 83.44 | 70.66 | 81.20 | 72.70 | 0.352 |
Mixing herbicides on-site (%) | |||||
Yes | 54.41 | 50.66 | 62.32 | 50.00 | 0.250 |
Source of recommendation (%) | |||||
Agriculture officer | 8.55 | 14.60 | 4.35 | 6.06 | 0.107 |
Usage at the recommended dose (%) | |||||
Yes | 21.91 | 20.00 | 28.99 | 16.67 | 0.194 |
Overuse of herbicides (%) | |||||
Yes | 54.76 | 44.00 | 55.07 | 66.67 | 0.038 |
Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) (%) | |||||
Yes | 29.49 | 30.60 | 39.13 | 18.18 | 0.027 |
Safe storage of herbicides (%) | |||||
Yes | 31.89 | 29.30 | 36.23 | 30.30 | 0.616 |
Correct disposal (%) | |||||
Yes | 32.84 | 17.30 | 36.23 | 46.97 | <0.000 |
Variables | Total | Matara (MA) | Rahathangama (RH) | Warunagama (WA) | Kruskal-Wallis & Mann-Whitney U Test |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Glyphosate (µg/g Cr) | |||||
All (Median) | 198.49 | 177.8 | 224.3 | 224.5 | <0.0001 1 MA vs. RH 0.033 2 MA vs. WA 0.017 2 RH vs. WA 0.710 |
Range | 0.0–979.98 | 99.5–350.1 | 33.1–827.3 | 0.0–979.9 | |
IQR | 147.01–286.61 | 147.1–225 | 138.3–327.7 | 147.9–353 | |
n | 210 | 75 | 69 | 66 | |
Male (Median) | 175.3 | 175.2 | 147.2 | 200.8 | 0.07 1 MA vs. RH 0.207 MA vs. WA 0.157 RH vs. WA 0.034 2 |
Range | 33.14–555.4 | 105–287.3 | 33.14–474.5 | 41.74–555.4 | |
IQR | 138.3–250.8 | 148.5–216.8 | 95.23–238.4 | 146.2–328.0 | |
n | 124 | 47 | 31 | 46 | |
Female (Median) | 234.1 | 185.3 | 299.0 | 276.9 | 0.012 1 MA vs. RH 0.002 2 MA vs. WA 0.035 2 RH vs. WA 0.901 |
Range | 0.0–827.3 | 99.5–350.1 | 83.78–827.3 | 0–980 | |
IQR | 163.0–343.1 | 137.2–235.9 | 177.9–400.7 | 161.6–494.1 | |
n | 86 | 28 | 38 | 20 | |
Paraquat (µg/g Cr) | |||||
All (median) | 0.31 | 0 | 0.12 | 0.75 | <0.0001 1 MA vs. RH 0.7341 MA vs. WA < 0.0001 2 RH vs. WA 0.0042 2 |
Range | 0.0–11.42 | 0.0–1.3 | 0.0–2.8 | 0.0–11.4 | |
IQR | 0.0–0.99 | 0–0.63 | 0–0.92 | 0–2.1 | |
n | 210 | 75 | 69 | 66 | |
Male (Median) | 0.645 | 0 | 0.84 | 1.675 | <0.0001 1 MA vs. RH 0.0006 2 MA vs. WA < 0.0001 2 RH vs. WA 0.019 |
Range | 0.0–11.42 | 0–1.32 | 0–2.63 | 0–11.42 | |
IQR | 0.0–1.57 | 0–0.63 | 0–1.52. | 0.18–2.73 | |
n | 124 | 47 | 31 | 46 | |
Female (Median) | 0.00 | 0.33 | 0 | 0.18 | 0.182 1 MA vs. RH 0.160 MA vs. WA 0.890 RH vs. WA 0.100 |
Range | 0.0–2.79 | 0–0.65 | 0–2.79 | 0–1.17 | |
IQR | 0.0–0.42 | 0–0.65 | 0–0.227 | 0–0.4925 | |
n | 86 | 28 | 38 | 20 |
Variables | Total n = 210 | Matara n = 75 | Rahathangama n = 69 | Warunagama n = 66 | Mann-Whitney U Test |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Microalbumin (mg/L); p < 0.0001 1 | |||||
Median | 10.00 | 6 | 11 | 21 | MA vs. RH <0.0001 2 |
Range | 2.00–311.0 | 2–311 | 2–162 | 2–157 | MA vs. WA <0.0001 2 |
IQR | 5.00–25.00 | 4–10 | 7–36.5 | 6–65.5 | RH vs. WA 0.3052 |
Urinary Creatinine (mg/dL); p < 0.0001 1 | |||||
Median | 85.40 | 136.8 | 58.9 | 62.15 | MA vs. RH <0.0001 2 |
Range | 0.78–513.10 | 32–513.1 | 19.9–355.2 | 7.8–337.4 | MA vs. WA <0.0001 2 |
IQR | 45.65–179.10 | 87.4–259.3 | 40.7–108.1 | 34.6–142 | RH vs. WA 0.636 |
ACR (mg/g Cr); p < 0.0001 1 | |||||
Median | 12.00 | 4.3 | 14.9 | 23.7 | MA vs. RH <0.0001 2 |
Range | 1.10–470.00 | 1.1–237.9 | 5.4–393.1 | 7.1–470 | MA vs. WA <0.0001 2 |
IQR | 6.57–24.55 | 2.2–6.7 | 10.8–24.0 | 11.5–64.6 | RH vs. WA 0.055 |
Serum Creatinine (mg/dL); p = 0.003 1 | |||||
Median | 1.11 | 1.09 | 1.13 | 1.225 | MA vs. RH 0.282 |
Range | 0.67–6.41 | 0.67–4.07 | 0.67–5.98 | 0.67–6.41 | MA vs. WA <0.0001 2 |
IQR | 0.96–1.33 | 0.98–1.13 | 0.91–1.6 | 1.01–2.07 | RH vs. WA 0.060 |
eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m2) p < 0.0001 1 | |||||
Median | 73.00 | 86 | 65 | 59 | MA vs. RH <0.0001 2 |
Range | 9.0–123.0 | 15–122 | 11–115 | 9–123 | MA vs. WA <0.0001 2 |
IQR | 51.0–90.0 | 72–98 | 41–87 | 36–87 | RH vs. WA 0.566 |
KIM-1 (ng/g Cr); p = 0.156 | |||||
Median | 3.096 | 1.74 | 3.2 | 3.6 | MA vs. RH 0.1207 |
IQR | 1.181–112.41 | 0.76–116.9 | 1.29–106.1 | 1.94–115.1 | MA vs. WA 0.0807 |
Mean (SEM) | 94.56 ± 12.62 | 66.5 ± 11.6 | 114.6 ± 25.5 | 101.6 ± 25.0 | RH vs. WA 0.7165 |
Range | 0.30–954.0 | 0.3–353.9 | 0.4–944.2 | 0.4–954.3 | |
NGAL (ng/mg Cr); p < 0.0001 1 | |||||
Median | 2.05 | 1.28 | 3.09 | 2.14 | MA vs. RH <0.0001 2 |
IQR | 0.91–5.20 | 0.56–2.81 | 1.15–9.09 | 1.28–6.15 | MA vs. WA 0.0006 2 |
Mean (SEM) | 8.89 ± 1.83 | 2.1 ± 0.3 | 12.0 ± 2.8 | 12.4 ± 4.7 | RH vs. WA 0.5766 |
Range | 0.27–283.01 | 0.3–10.1 | 0.3–128.4 | 0.4–283.0 | |
B2M (ng/mg Cr) p = 0.7403 | |||||
Median | 22.54 | 21.01 | 23.64 | 24.18 | MA vs. RH 0.852 |
IQR | 9.49–61.63 | 9.41–50.01 | 10.79–65.03 | 9.13–68.04 | MA vs. WA 0.90 |
Mean (SEM) | 55.74 ± 6.29 | 42.27 ± 7.32 | 55.06 ± 9.26 | 73.26 ± 16.16 | RH vs. WA 0.90 |
Range | 1.54–601.14 | 2.11–382.4 | 2.75–411.3 | 1.54–601.4 | |
Cys C (mg/L); p < 0.0001 1 | |||||
Median | 0.77 | 0.74 | 0.825 | 0.68 | MA vs. RH 0.094 |
IQR | 0.69–0.85 | 0.67–0.81 | 0.68–1.02 | 0.56–0.79 | MA vs. WA 0.0504 |
Mean (SEM) | 0.87 ± 0.03 | 0.77 ± 0.03 | 0.87 ± 0.03 | 0.77 ± 0.04 | RH vs. WA <0.0001 |
Range | 0.38–3.24 | 0.54–2.66 | 0.38–1.47 | 0.35–3.24 |
Variables | Glyphosate (µg/g Cr) | Paraquat (µg/g Cr) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
rs | p | rs | p | |
Microalbumin (mg/L) | −0.224 | 0.0014 | 0.133 | 0.059 |
KIM-1 (ng/g Cr) | 0.098 | 0.165 | −0.057 | 0.418 |
NGAL (ng/mg Cr) | 0.4932 | 0.001 | −0.113 | 0.107 |
SCr (mg/L) | 0.098 | 0.162 | 0.021 | 0.771 |
eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m2) | −0.147 | 0.036 | 0.051 | 0.411 |
B2M (ng/mg Cr) | −0.1438 | 0.0416 | −0.06328 | 0.3721 |
SCys C (mg/L) | −0.1411 | 0.04567 | 0.1258 | 0.0752 |
Variable | Total | Matara (MA) | Rahathangama (RH) | Warunagama (WA) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β (95% CI) | p | β (95% CI) | p | β (95% CI) | p | β (95% CI) | p | ||
SCr | Glyphosate Paraquat Age Gender Location | −0.01 (−0.001 to 0.001) 0.168 (−0.001 to 0.02) 0.21 (0.006 to 0.03) −0.11 (−0.52 to 0.09) 0.239 (0.123 to 0.449) | 0.87 0.02 0.002 0.16 0.01 | 6.2 (−0.003 to 0.003) 0.11 (−0.23 to 0.45) 0.01 (0.001 to 0.02) −0.82 (−0.42 to 0.25) | 0.96 0.52 0.05 0.63 | 7.5 (−0.001 to −0.3) −0.3 (−0.5 to 0.03) 0.000 (−0.02 to 0.02) −0.8 (−1.3 to −0.3) | 0.92 0.07 0.98 0.001 | 0.001 (−0.001 to 0.002) −0.04 (−0.2 to 0.1) 0.02 (−0.006 to 0.04) −0.2 (−1.1 to 0.6) | 0.54 0.62 0.14 0.59 |
eGFR | Glyphosate Paraquat Age Gender Location | −0.01 (0.05 to 0.01) −0.14 (−5.5 to 0.17) −0.16 (−0.65 to −0.05) −0.12 (−16.4 to 1.87) −0.3.4 (−15.44 to −6.03) | 0.21 0.07 0.02 0.12 <0.001 | 0.01 (−0.09 to 0.09) −1.92 (−12.9 to 9.1) −1.09 (−1.5 to −0.7) −2.46 (−13.5 to 8.4) | 0.98 0.73 <0.001 0.65 | −0.02 (−0.07 to 0.02) 7.7 (−1.3 to 16.7) −0.5 (−1.02 to −0.05) 9.7 (−5.6 to 25) | 0.26 0.09 0.03 0.21 | −0.02 (−6.06 to 0.02) 2.0 (−1.5 to 5.6) −0.9 (−1.4 to −0.3) −27.4 (−39.2 to −3.6) | 0.42 0.25 0.002 0.02 |
KIM−1 | Glyphosate Paraquat Age Gender Location | −0.04 (−0.23 to 0.14) 0.05 (−12.61 to 23.85) 0.11 (−0.48 to 3.37) −0.01 (−62.78 to 54.02) 0.08 (−13.15 to 48.24) | 0.65 0.54 0.14 0.88 0.261 | −0.32 (−0.7 to 0.09) −8.26 (−59.5 to 43) −3.14 (−5.05 to −1.23) −72.04 (−122.8 to −21.3) | 0.12 0.75 0.002 0.006 | 0.03 (−0.3 to 0.4) −33.5 (−106.9 to 39.9) 2.4 (−1.6 to 6.4) 46.5 (−78.9 to 171.8) | 0.86 0.36 0.23 0.46 | 0.05 (−0.24 to 0.34) −10.0 (−35.7 to 15.7) 0.01 (−3.9 to 3.9) −154.3 (−283.9 to −24.8) | 0.74 0.44 0.99 0.02 |
NGAL | Glyphosate Paraquat Age Gender Location | 0.09 (−0.01 to 0.04) −0.008 (−2.76 to 2.48) −0.02 (−0.32 to 0.24) 0.12 (−1.97 to 14.82) 0.16 (0.73 to 9.54) | 0.23 0.92 0.78 0.13 0.023 | 0.02 (0.01 to 0.03) −1.14 (−2.3 to 0.01) 0.03 (−0.01 to 0.07) −0.25 (−1.4 to 0.9) | <0.001 0.05 0.19 0.67 | 0.06 (0.03 to 0.1) −0.3 (−7.8 to 7.2) −0.3 (−0.7 to 0.1) −5.6 (−18.4 to 7.2) | 0.001 0.94 0.17 0.39 | 0.1 (0.07 to 0.2) −3.3 (−7.4 to 0.8) −0.4 (−0.9 to 0.3) −2.2 (−22.7 to 18.3) | <0.001 0.11 0.27 0.83 |
ACR | Glyphosate Paraquat Age Gender Location | −0.06 (−0.00 to 0.05) 0.17 (1.35 to 17.14) 0.24 (0.57 to 2.24) 0.003 (−24.73 to 25.86) 0.261 (12.45 to 39.11) | 0.39 0.02 0.001 0.97 <0.001 | 0.03 (−0.1 to 0.17) 9.21 (−8.1 to 26.6) 0.50 (−0.14 to 1.15) −2.89 (−20.0 to 14.3) | 0.64 0.29 0.12 0.74 | −0.02 (−0.2 to 0.1) −30.6 (−61.3 to 0.1) −0.5 (−2.2 to 1.2) −54.6 (−1.7 to −2.1) | 0.79 0.05 0.54 0.04 | 0.02 (−0.1 to 0.2) 1.7 (−10.5 to 13.9) 1.6 (−0.3 to 3.4) −4.6 (−66.3 to 56.9) | 0.82 0.78 0.1 0.88 |
B2M | Glyphosate Paraquat Age Gender Location | −0.03 (−0.17 to 0.12) 0.02 (−12.33 to 16.22) 0.07 (−0.75 to 2.27) −0.09 (−70.9 to 20.56) −0.013 (−24.00 to 21.88) | 0.75 0.79 0.32 0.28 0.854 | −0.07 (−1.22 to 0.69) −0.11 (−187.55 to 74.28) −0.10 (−5.95 to 2.77) −0.14 (−175.43 to 53.08) | 0.58 0.39 0.47 0.29 | −0.02 (−0.15 to 0.13) −0.22 (−50.98 to 4.74) 0.08 (−1.00 to 2.03) −0.24 (−85.68 to 9.48) | 0.89 0.10 0.50 0.12 | −0.09 (−0.22 to 0.11) 0.23 (−2.43 to 27.02) 0.33 (0.87 to 5.38) 0.07 (−56.89 to 91.64) | 0.53 0.1 0.007 0.64 |
Cys C | Glyphosate Paraquat Age Gender Location | −0.001 (0.00 to 0.00) 0.09 (0.02 to 0.06) 0.19 (0.001 to 0.01) −0.07 (−0.18 to 0.07) 0.165 (0.013 to 0.144) | 0.99 0.25 0.009 0.35 0.019 | −0.04 (−0.001 to 0.001) −0.09 (−0.24 to 0.11) −0.13 (−0.009 to 0.003) −0.19 (−0.26 to 0.05) | 0.76 0.49 0.35 0.17 | 0.04 (0.00 to 0.001) −0.24 (−0.19 to 0.01) 0.03 (−0.01 to 0.01) −0.36 (−0.37 to 0.04) | 0.78 0.07 0.80 0.01 | −0.67 (−0.001 to 0.001) 0.16 (−0.03 to 0.10) 0.34 (0.004 to 0.03) 0.04 (−0.29 to 0.39) | 0.66 0.27 0.006 0.78 |
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Abdul, K.S.M.; De Silva, P.M.C.S.; Ekanayake, E.M.D.V.; Thakshila, W.A.K.G.; Gunarathna, S.D.; Gunasekara, T.D.K.S.C.; Jayasinghe, S.S.; Asanthi, H.B.; Chandana, E.P.S.; Chaminda, G.G.T.; et al. Occupational Paraquat and Glyphosate Exposure May Decline Renal Functions among Rural Farming Communities in Sri Lanka. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 3278. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18063278
Abdul KSM, De Silva PMCS, Ekanayake EMDV, Thakshila WAKG, Gunarathna SD, Gunasekara TDKSC, Jayasinghe SS, Asanthi HB, Chandana EPS, Chaminda GGT, et al. Occupational Paraquat and Glyphosate Exposure May Decline Renal Functions among Rural Farming Communities in Sri Lanka. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(6):3278. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18063278
Chicago/Turabian StyleAbdul, K.S.M., P. Mangala C.S. De Silva, E.M.D.V. Ekanayake, W.A.K.G. Thakshila, S.D. Gunarathna, T.D.K.S.C. Gunasekara, S.S. Jayasinghe, H.B. Asanthi, E.P.S. Chandana, G.G.T. Chaminda, and et al. 2021. "Occupational Paraquat and Glyphosate Exposure May Decline Renal Functions among Rural Farming Communities in Sri Lanka" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 6: 3278. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18063278