Driving Behavior That Limits Concentration: A Nationwide Survey in Greece
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample
2.2. Survey Timeframe
2.3. Data Collection
2.4. Validation
2.5. Questionnaire
2.6. Dataset Weighing
2.7. Statistical Analysis
2.8. Specification of Variables
3. Results
3.1. Main Findings
3.2. Univariate Analyses
3.2.1. Type of Vehicle
3.2.2. Sex
3.2.3. Age
3.2.4. Educational Level
3.2.5. Social Class
3.2.6. Area of Residence
3.3. Correlations between Variables
3.4. Multivariate Analyses
3.4.1. Drink Driving
3.4.2. Cell Phone Calls
3.4.3. Smoke Driving
3.4.4. Texting and/or Setting the GPS While Driving
4. Discussion
4.1. Alcohol
4.2. Cell Phone/ Texting/GPS Setting
4.3. 8 h Sleep Prior to Long Travel Driving
4.4. Smoking
4.5. Medication Altering Concentration
4.6. Motorcycle Drivers
4.7. Future Considerations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Cell Phone Calls | Smoking | Setting GPS | Drink Driving | Texting | Driving After Taking Medication Causing Drowsiness | Reacting to Other Drivers’ Irritating Behavior | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cell phone calls | 1 | 0.11 (<0.001) | 0.21 (<0.001) | 0.17 (<0.001) | 0.28 (<0.001) | 0 (0.999) | −0.08 (0.007) |
Smoking | 0.11 (<0.001) | 1 | 0.08 (0.008) | 0.11 (<0.001) | 0.06 (0.034) | 0.05 (0.107) | −0.04 (0.156) |
Setting GPS | 0.21 (<0.001) | 0.08 (0.008) | 1 | 0.04 (0.198) | 0.36 (<0.001) | 0 (0.916) | −0.08 (0.01) |
Drink driving | 0.17 (<0.001) | 0.11 (<0.001) | 0.04 (0.198) | 1 | 0.06 (0.047) | 0.08 (0.007) | −0.09 (0.004) |
Texting | 0.28 (<0.001) | 0.06 (0.034) | 0.36 (<0.001) | 0.06 (0.047) | 1 | 0.01 (0.841) | −0.04 (0.164) |
Driving after taking medication that causes drowsiness | 0 (0.999) | 0.05 (0.107) | 0 (0.916) | 0.08 (0.007) | 0.01 (0.841) | 1 | −0.03 (0.34) |
Reacting to other drivers’ irritating behavior | −0.08 (0.007) | −0.04 (0.156) | −0.08 (0.01) | −0.09 (0.004) | −0.04 (0.164) | −0.03 (0.34) | 1 |
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Section | Theme | Participants |
---|---|---|
1 | General information regarding driving | All participants with a focus on drivers |
2 | Violations, reactions to other driver’s irritating behavior, behavior that limits concentration while driving, vehicle maintenance, preparation before a long journey, use of child seats | Car, motorbike and professional drivers |
3 | Irresponsible driving behavior | Motorbike and bicycle drivers |
4 | Passengers’ responsibilities | All participants |
5 | Demographic characteristics | All participants |
Variable | N = 1601 |
---|---|
Sex | |
Male | 48% |
Female | 52% |
Age | |
17–34 | 27% |
35–54 | 35% |
55–74 | 29% |
75+ | 9% |
Residence | |
Urban (>10,000 residents) | 69% |
Town (2000–10,000 residents) | 15% |
Rural (≤2000 residents) | 15% |
Education | |
Up to secondary | 68% |
Higher | 32% |
Occupational status | |
Working | 42% |
Unemployed | 12% |
Housewife | 11% |
Retired | 26% |
Student | 6% |
Other | 2% |
DK/NA * | 0% |
Social class | |
Upper | 15% |
Middle to upper | 24% |
Middle to lower | 38% |
Lower | 22% |
Driving license | |
Yes | 74% |
No | 26% |
Variable | N = 1178 |
---|---|
Number of valid driving licenses per participant | |
1 | 76% |
2 | 20% |
3 | 4% |
Valid driving license (multiple per person) | |
Car | 98% |
Motorbike | 22% |
Professional vehicle (e.g., taxi, bus, lorry etc.) | 7% |
Driving years (median, IQR) | |
Car | 27 (17–39) |
Motorbike | 23 (14–35) |
Professional vehicle (e.g., taxi, bus, lorry etc.) | 25 (10–33) |
Average daily driving time (minutes) (median, IQR) | |
Car | 9 (7–17) |
Motorbike | 9 (5–17) |
Professional vehicle | 34 (17–69) |
Average daily driving distance (km) (median, IQR) | |
Car | 7.1 (3.6–11.4) |
Motorbike | 5.7 (3.6–10) |
Professional vehicle | 28.6 (8.6–35.7) |
Most driven vehicle in the past 3 months | |
Private Car | 78% |
Motorbike | 8% |
Professional vehicle (e.g., taxi, bus, lorry etc.) | 3% |
Bicycle | 3% |
None | 7% |
Ministry of Transport (MOT) test | |
Always on time | 91% |
Sometimes delayed | 7% |
DK/NA * | 1% |
Gas card | |
Always valid | 78% |
Not always renewed on time | 19% |
DK/NA* | 3% |
Car tyres renewal (years) (median, IQR) | 3 (3–4) |
Motorbike tyres renewal (years) (median, IQR) | 3 (2–4) |
Behavior that Limits Concentration on Driving | Total | Type of Vehicle | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Private Car | Motorbike | Professional Vehicle | |||
Reacting to other drivers’ irritating behavior | 0.76 | ||||
At least once | 95% | 95% | 94% | 97% | |
Never | 5% | 5% | 6% | 3% | |
Cell phone calls | <0.001 | ||||
At least once | 49% | 51% | 21% | 63% | |
Never | 51% | 49% | 79% | 35% | |
Smoking | <0.001 | ||||
At least once | 20% | 20% | 8% | 45% | |
Never | 79% | 80% | 89% | 52% | |
DK/NA * | 1% | 3% | 3% | ||
Setting GPS | 0.002 | ||||
At least once | 18% | 19% | 8% | 19% | |
Never | 81% | 81% | 89% | 76% | |
DK/NA * | 1% | 1% | 4% | 4% | |
Drink driving | 0.28 | ||||
At least once | 13% | 13% | 21% | 12% | |
Never | 87% | 87% | 79% | 88% | |
Texting | <0.001 | ||||
At least once | 10% | 10% | 25% | ||
Never | 90% | 89% | 97% | 73% | |
DK/NA * | 1% | 3% | 2% |
Variable | Sex | Age | Educational Level | Social Class | Area of Residence | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | p-Value | 17–34 | 35–54 | 55–74 | 75+ | p-Value | Up to secondary | Higher | p-Value | Upper | Middle to upper | Middle to lower | Lower | p-Value | Urban | Town | Rural | p-Value | |
Number of valid driving licenses per participant | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.09 | |||||||||||||||
1 | 54% | 58% | 50% | 65% | 54% | 48% | 51% | 68% | 68% | 63% | 54% | 43% | 58% | 55% | 49% | |||||
2 | 26% | 4% | 10% | 19% | 16% | 7% | 12% | 19% | 13% | 16% | 18% | 9% | 15% | 12% | 16% | |||||
3 | 1% | 0% | 2% | 4% | 2% | 2% | 4% | 19% | 2% | 2% | 3% | 4% | 2% | 3% | 6% | |||||
None | 14% | 37% | 38% | 12% | 28% | 44% | 33% | 12% | 17% | 19% | 25% | 44% | 25% | 29% | 30% | |||||
Most driven vehicle in the past 3 months * | <0.001 | 0.004 | 0.15 | 0.01 | 0.91 | |||||||||||||||
Private Car | 78% | 93% | 78% | 86% | 85% | 96% | 83% | 87% | 93% | 85% | 82% | 83% | 85% | 84% | 84% | |||||
Motorbike | 13% | 3% | 11% | 7% | 10% | 3% | 9% | 7% | 4% | 10% | 9% | 10% | 9% | 8% | 8% | |||||
Professional vehicle (e.g., taxi, bus, lorry etc.) | 6% | 0% | 3% | 4% | 4% | 2% | 4% | 2% | 0% | 2% | 5% | 5% | 3% | 5% | 4% | |||||
Bicycle | 3% | 4% | 8% | 3% | 1% | 0% | 3% | 4% | 2% | 4% | 4% | 2% | 4% | 3% | 3% |
Behavior that Limits Concentration on Driving | Sex | Age | Educational Level | Social Class | Area of Residence | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | p-Value | 17–34 | 35–54 | 55–74 | 75+ | p-Value | Up to secondary | Higher | p-Value | Upper | Middle to upper | Middle to lower | Lower | p-Value | Urban | Town | Rural | p-Value | |
Reacting to other drivers’ irritating behavior | 0.34 | <0.001 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.64 | |||||||||||||||
At least once | 95% | 96% | 99% | 97% | 94% | 80% | 95% | 97% | 97% | 97% | 95% | 91% | 95% | 96% | 94% | |||||
Never | 5% | 4% | 1% | 3% | 6% | 20% | 5% | 3% | 3% | 3% | 5% | 9% | 5% | 4% | 6% | |||||
Cell phone calls | 0.05 | <0.001 | 0.004 | 0.001 | 0.47 | |||||||||||||||
At least once | 51% | 46% | 49% | 59% | 43% | 11% | 45% | 55% | 50% | 49% | 54% | 35% | 50% | 51% | 43% | |||||
Never | 48% | 54% | 51% | 41% | 56% | 89% | 55% | 45% | 50% | 51% | 45% | 65% | 50% | 49% | 57% | |||||
Smoking | 0.13 | 0.0005 | 0.15 | 0.02 | 0.06 | |||||||||||||||
At least once | 20% | 19% | 16% | 26% | 17% | 4% | 21% | 18% | 13% | 19% | 20% | 29% | 22% | 21% | 11% | |||||
Never | 78% | 81% | 83% | 73% | 83% | 95% | 78% | 82% | 87% | 81% | 79% | 71% | 78% | 78% | 88% | |||||
DK/NA* | 1% | 2% | 1% | 1% | 1% | 1% | 1% | 2% | ||||||||||||
Setting GPS | 0.35 | <0.001 | 0.0009 | 0.18 | 0.03 | |||||||||||||||
At least once | 18% | 18% | 33% | 20% | 7% | 1% | 15% | 22% | 17% | 21% | 19% | 13% | 20% | 18% | 9% | |||||
Never | 81% | 82% | 66% | 80% | 91% | 95% | 83% | 78% | 83% | 79% | 80% | 85% | 79% | 82% | 88% | |||||
DK/NA * | 1% | 1% | 2% | 4% | 1% | 1% | 2% | 1% | 1% | 3% | ||||||||||
Drink driving | <0.001 | 0.08 | 0.33 | 0.79 | 0.39 | |||||||||||||||
At least once | 20% | 5% | 17% | 12% | 15% | 3% | 13% | 13% | 12% | 13% | 15% | 11% | 14% | 11% | 11% | |||||
Never | 80% | 95% | 83% | 88% | 85% | 97% | 87% | 87% | 87% | 86% | 85% | 89% | 86% | 89% | 88% | |||||
Texting | 0.25 | <0.001 | 0.0002 | 0.02 | 0.01 | |||||||||||||||
At least once | 9% | 11% | 23% | 10% | 2% | 7% | 14% | 7% | 7% | 14% | 7% | 11% | 8% | 5% | ||||||
Never | 90% | 89% | 76% | 90% | 97% | 98% | 92% | 85% | 93% | 93% | 85% | 92% | 88% | 91% | 93% | |||||
DK/NA * | 1% | 1% | 1% | 2% | 1% | 1% | 1% | 1% | 2% |
Model | Explanatory Variables | Odds Ratio | p-Value | 95% Confidence Interval | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | |||||
Dependent variable: Drink driving | Sex (reference female) | Male | 5.04 | <0.001 | 3.12 | 8.14 |
Age (reference 75+) | 17–34 | 7.97 | 0.002 | 2.13 | 29.84 | |
35–54 | 6.21 | 0.005 | 1.74 | 22.10 | ||
55–74 | 6.82 | 0.003 | 1.92 | 24.13 | ||
Constant | 0.008 | <0.001 | 0.002 | 0.03 | ||
Dependent variable: Cell phone calls | Sex (reference female) | Male | 1.18 | 0.656 | 0.58 | 2.41 |
Age (reference 17–34) | 35–54 | 1.18 | 0.580 | 0.66 | 2.12 | |
55–74 | 0.40 | 0.005 | 0.21 | 0.76 | ||
75+ | 0.04 | 0.003 | 0.005 | 0.32 | ||
Vehicle (reference motorbike) | Car | 5.64 | <0.001 | 3.07 | 10.35 | |
Professional vehicle | 6.78 | <0.001 | 2.59 | 17.71 | ||
Age ## Sex | Male 35–54 | 1.53 | 0.309 | 0.67 | 3.50 | |
Male 55–74 | 2.75 | 0.019 | 1.18 | 6.41 | ||
Male 75+ | 3.08 | 0.330 | 0.32 | 29.73 | ||
Constant | 0.18 | <0.001 | 0.09 | 0.40 | ||
Dependent variable: Smoking | Sex (reference female) | Male | 1.43 | 0.043 | 1.01 | 2.04 |
Age (reference 17–34) | 35–54 | 1.99 | 0.009 | 1.186 | 3.33 | |
55–74 | 1.04 | 0.876 | 0.60 | 1.81 | ||
75+ | 0.17 | 0.006 | 0.05 | 0.61 | ||
Vehicle (reference motorbike) | Car | 3.56 | 0.002 | 1.61 | 7.91 | |
Professional vehicle | 9.53 | <0.001 | 3.25 | 28.00 | ||
Social class (reference upper) | Middle to upper | 1.64 | 0.074 | 0.95 | 2.82 | |
Middle to lower | 1.62 | 0.068 | 0.97 | 2.72 | ||
Lower | 3.73 | <0.001 | 2.06 | 6.78 | ||
Area of residence (reference rural) | Urban | 2.95 | 0.002 | 1.47 | 5.92 | |
Town | 2.69 | 0.013 | 1.23 | 5.88 | ||
Constant | 0.01 | <0.001 | 0.003 | 0.03 | ||
Dependent variable: Texting and/or setting the GPS | Sex (reference female) | Male | 1.30 | 0.153 | 0.91 | 1.86 |
Age * (reference 55–74) | 17–34 | 9.10 | <0.001 | 5.51 | 15.02 | |
35–54 | 3.99 | <0.001 | 2.64 | 6.05 | ||
Vehicle (reference motorbike) | Car | 5.01 | 0.003 | 1.75 | 14.32 | |
Professional vehicle | 9.24 | 0.001 | 2.46 | 34.72 | ||
Area of residence (reference rural) | Urban | 2.66 | 0.008 | 1.29 | 5.48 | |
Town | 2.02 | 0.096 | 0.88 | 4.64 | ||
Constant | 0.01 | <0.001 | 0.002 | 0.03 |
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Tzortzi, A.; Kapetanstrataki, M.; Evangelopoulou, V.; Behrakis, P. Driving Behavior That Limits Concentration: A Nationwide Survey in Greece. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4104. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084104
Tzortzi A, Kapetanstrataki M, Evangelopoulou V, Behrakis P. Driving Behavior That Limits Concentration: A Nationwide Survey in Greece. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(8):4104. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084104
Chicago/Turabian StyleTzortzi, Anna, Melpo Kapetanstrataki, Vaso Evangelopoulou, and Panagiotis Behrakis. 2021. "Driving Behavior That Limits Concentration: A Nationwide Survey in Greece" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 8: 4104. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084104