The Significance of Demographic Variables on Psychosocial Health from the Early Stage and Nine Months after the COVID-19 Pandemic Outbreak. A Cross-National Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Study Aim
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Design and Procedures
2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Sociodemographic Characteristics and Time of Survey
2.3.2. Mental Health, Quality of Life, Well-Being and Loneliness
2.4. Statistical Analysis
2.5. Ethics
3. Results
3.1. Participants
3.2. Mental Health, Overall Quality of Life, Well-Being and Loneliness at T1 and T2 Combined
3.3. Mental Health, Overall Quality of Life, Well-Being and Loneliness in and between Countries and Time
3.4. Regression Analysis
3.5. Multiple Linear Regression
4. Discussion
Study Strength and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sociodemographic Characteristics | Answering Options |
---|---|
Country of residence | NO USA UK AUS |
Gender | Women Men Other |
Age | <24 years 25–34 years 35–44 years 45–54 years 55–64 years 65–74 years >75 years |
Civil status | Married/cohabiting Not married/cohabiting |
Having children | Yes No |
Education | ≤Bachelor ≥Master |
Employment | Full-time Part time |
Place of work | Healthcare Trade industry Education Public safety, police, fire services, etc. Other |
Living area | Rural or farming area Town/suburb City |
GHQ | CL | PSW | Loneliness | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 7284 | Mean (SD) | p | Mean (SD) | p | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | ||||
Demographic variables | Gender | <0.001 | 0.5 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||
Women | 5580 | 16.8 (6.6) | 6.2 (2.2) | 2.8 (0.8) | 10.5 (4.9) | |||||
Men | 1489 | 14.8 (7.1) | 6.3 (2.5) | 2.6 (0.9) | 10.2 (5.3) | |||||
Other | 215 | 18.45 (8.2) | 6.1 (2.2) | 3.1 (0.9) | 12.2 (5.3) | |||||
Age | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
<24 years | 655 | 19.3 (7) | 5.8 (2.4) | 3.1 (0.8) | 11.8 (4.7) | |||||
25–34 years | 1478 | 18.1 (6.5) | 5.9 (2.2) | 2.9 (0.8) | 10.7 (4.7) | |||||
35–44 years | 1327 | 16.9 (6.8) | 6.1 (2.2) | 2.8 (0.8) | 10.3 (5.) | |||||
45–54 years | 1299 | 15.9 (6.6) | 6.3 (2.3) | 2.7 (0.8) | 9.9 (5) | |||||
55–64 years | 1112 | 15.1 (6.6) | 6.5 (2.3) | 2.6 (0.8) | 9.6 (4.8) | |||||
65–74 years | 830 | 13.4 (6.1) | 6.8 (2.4) | 2.4 (0.8) | 9.1 (4.6) | |||||
>75 years | 182 | 12.8 (5.2) | 6.6 (2.4) | 2.3 (0.8) | 8.6 (4.5) | |||||
Civil status | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
Married/cohabiting | 4379 | 15.8 (6.5) | 6.4 (2.2) | 2.6 (0.8) | 9.7 (4.8) | |||||
Not married/cohabiting | 2638 | 17.3 (7.2) | 5.9 (2.4) | 3 (0.9) | 11.6 (5.1) | |||||
Having children | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
Yes | 4344 | 15.4 (6.5) | 6.5 (2.8) | 2.6 (0.8) | 9.8 (4.9) | |||||
No | 2940 | 17.6 (6.9) | 5.9 (2.3) | 3 (0.8) | 10.7 (4.8) | |||||
Education | <0.001 | <0.01 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
≤Bachelor | 4644 | 16.8 (7.1) | 6.1 (2.4) | 2.8 (0.9) | 10.7 (4.9) | |||||
≥Master | 2570 | 15.7 (6.2) | 6.4 (2.2) | 2.6 (0.8) | 9.3 (4.7) | |||||
Employment | 0.001 | 0.9 | <0.001 | <0.01 | ||||||
Full-time | 3580 | 16.2 (6.5) | 6.2 (2.2) | 2.7 (0.8) | 10.3 (4.9) | |||||
Part time | 1411 | 17.3 (6.7) | 6.1 (2.3) | 2.9 (0.8) | 10.8 (5.1) | |||||
Place of work | <0.001 | 0.4 | <0.05 | <0.01 | ||||||
Healthcare | 882 | 16 (6) | 6.3 (2.3) | 2.7 (0.8) | 9.5 (4.6) | |||||
Trade industry | 176 | 17.2 (7.4) | 5.8 (2.6) | 2.9 (0.9) | 10.7 (5.2) | |||||
Education | 697 | 16.9 (6.2) | 6.3 (2.1) | 2.8 (0.7) | 10.2 (4.9) | |||||
Public safety, police, fire services, etc. | 370 | 14.7 (6.2) | 6.3 (2.2) | 2.7 (0.8) | 10.5 (5.2) | |||||
Other | 1379 | 16.7 (6.9) | 6.2 (2.2) | 2.8 (0.8) | 10.4 (4.9) | |||||
Living area | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.9 | ||||||
Rural or farming area | 794 | 15.4 (6.7) | 6.4 (2.3) | 2.6 (0.9) | 10 (5.2) | |||||
Town/suburb | 3672 | 16.4 (6.8) | 6.3 (2.3) | 2.7 (0.8) | 10.3 (4.8) | |||||
City | 2744 | 16.9 (6.9) | 6.0 (2.3) | 2.8 (0.8) | 10 (4.9) |
Norway | USA | UK | Australia | Total | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
April N = 771 | November N = 547 | p | April N = 1393 | November N = 2130 | p | April N = 1373 | November N = 640 | p | April N = 273 | November N = 157 | p | N = 3810 Differences between countries April 2020 | N = 3474 Differences between countries November 2020 | ||
GHQ | Mean (SD) | 13.7 (6.5) | 14.9 (7) | <0.001 | 16.3 (6) | 16.4 (6.6) | 0.10 | 18.5 (7.6) | 18.6 (7) | 0.5 | 16.1 (6.8) | 15.2 (6.9) | 0.16 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Case (N/%) | 375/49 | 242/44 | 0.06 | 950/70 | 1033/56 | <0.001 | 1015/74 | 373/68 | <0.01 | 172/63 | 55/42 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
CL | Mean (SD) | 6.7 (1.9) | 6.1 (2.4) | <0.001 | 6.6 (2.1) | 6.3 (2.8) | <0.05 | 6.1 (2.3) | 6 (2.2) | 0.12 | 6.8 (2.2) | 5.8 (2.4) | <0.001 | <0.05 | <0.05 |
Case (N/%) | 204/27 | 210/38 | <0.001 | 414/30 | 1186/56 | <0.001 | 498/36 | 324/51 | <0.001 | 64/24 | 92/59 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
PSW | Mean (SD) | 2.2 (0.7) | 2.6 (0.9) | <0.001 | 2.9 (0.4) | 2.7 (0.9) | <0.001 | 2.8 (0.3) | 3 (0.8) | <0.001 | 2.9 (0.3) | 2.7 (0.9) | 0.05 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Loneli-ness | Overall loneliness (Mean/SD) | 7.8 (4.6) | 8.4 (5) | <0.01 | 10.2 (4.5) | 10.8 (4.9) | <0.001 | 11.0 (4.8) | 11.5 (4.5) | <0.05 | 9.4 (4.7) | 9.7 (5.1) | 0.5 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Psychosocial Variables by Demographic Variables and Time | Norway | USA | UK | AUS | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B (SE) | p | B (SE) | p | B (SE) | p | B (SE) | p | ||
GHQ | |||||||||
Gender (women) | 1.33 (0.67) | 0.047 | 1.24 (0.4) | 0.002 | 1.93 (0.65) | 0.003 | 1.54 (1.24) | 0.213 | |
Age | −0.99 (0.24) | <0.001 | −0.69 (0.14) | <0.001 | −0.38 (0.21) | 0.065 | −0.26 (0.4) | 0.514 | |
Civil status (married/cohabiting) | −1.48 (0.59) | 0.012 | 0.34 (0.38) | 0.373 | −2.37 (0.51) | <0.001 | −1.52 (1.11) | 0.17 | |
Children (yes) | −1.09 (0.68) | 0.113 | −0.62 (0.39) | 0.115 | 0.72 (0.77) | 0.352 | −2.01 (1.27) | 0.113 | |
Education (Master’s or above) | 0.89 (0.57) | 0.12 | −0.46 (0.36) | 0.193 | −0.3 (0.66) | 0.653 | −2.39 (1.06) | 0.024 | |
Employment (part-time) | 1.16 (0.63) | 0.066 | 0.28 (0.43) | 0.514 | 0.81 (0.54) | 0.133 | 2.29 (0.97) | 0.018 | |
Place of work (healthcare as ref.) | |||||||||
Other | 1.08 (0.71) | 0.13 | 0.58 (0.46) | 0.204 | 1.02 (0.6) | 0.086 | 1.71 (1.11) | 0.126 | |
Public safety, police, fire services, etc. | 0.35 (1.09) | 0.75 | −0.16 (0.62) | 0.802 | 0.57 (0.77) | 0.463 | 0.5 (1.5) | 0.738 | |
Education | 0.54 (0.88) | 0.536 | 0.98 (0.53) | 0.066 | 0.86 (0.83) | 0.301 | 4.13 (1.89) | 0.029 | |
Trade industry | −1 (1.13) | 0.376 | −0.55 (0.72) | 0.447 | 2.77 (1.1) | 0.012 | 1.56 (1.95) | 0.426 | |
Living area (rural as ref.) | 0.11 (0.44) | 0.8 | 0.25 (0.27) | 0.367 | 0.3 (0.36) | 0.399 | 0.27 (1.06) | 0.798 | |
Time (November vs. April) | 1.83 (0.68) | 0.007 | 0.02 (0.42) | 0.962 | 1.15 (0.68) | 0.09 | −2.06 (1.14) | 0.072 | |
CL | |||||||||
Gender (women) | −0.1 (0.26) | 0.714 | −0.17 (0.16) | 0.267 | −0.14 (0.21) | 0.511 | 1.05 (0.44) | 0.016 | |
Age | 0.29 (0.09) | 0.003 | 0.11 (0.06) | 0.039 | 0.03 (0.07) | 0.674 | 0.01 (0.14) | 0.933 | |
Civil status (married/cohabiting) | 0.66 (0.23) | 0.005 | −0.15 (0.15) | 0.331 | 0.59 (0.17) | 0.001 | 0.48 (0.39) | 0.227 | |
Children (yes) | 0.34 (0.27) | 0.213 | 0.2 (0.16) | 0.193 | 0.15 (0.25) | 0.55 | 0.01 (0.45) | 0.994 | |
Education (Master’s or above) | 0.11 (0.22) | 0.628 | −0.09 (0.14) | 0.53 | −0.05 (0.22) | 0.821 | −0.03 (0.38) | 0.94 | |
Employment (part-time) | 0.06 (0.25) | 0.806 | 0.36 (0.17) | 0.035 | 0.14 (0.18) | 0.43 | 0 (0.34) | 0.993 | |
Place of work (healthcare as ref.) | |||||||||
Other | −0.25 (0.28) | 0.381 | −0.19 (0.19) | 0.305 | −0.16 (0.2) | 0.426 | 0.39 (0.39) | 0.322 | |
Public safety, police, fire services, etc. | −0.24 (0.43) | 0.58 | −0.46 (0.24) | 0.059 | 0.02 (0.26) | 0.943 | 0.47 (0.53) | 0.377 | |
Education | −0.06 (0.34) | 0.861 | −0.09 (0.21) | 0.684 | −0.19 (0.27) | 0.479 | −0.52 (0.67) | 0.434 | |
Trade industry | 0.58 (0.44) | 0.184 | −0.48 (0.29) | 0.102 | −0.48 (0.36) | 0.18 | 0.74 (0.7) | 0.295 | |
Living area (rural as ref.) | 0 (0.18) | 0.996 | 0.05 (0.11) | 0.626 | −0.09 (0.12) | 0.456 | 0.16 (0.37) | 0.672 | |
Time (November vs. April) | 0.09 (0.29) | 0.756 | 0.12 (0.17) | 0.463 | 0.12 (0.22) | 0.599 | −0.61 (0.41) | 0.134 | |
PSW | |||||||||
Gender (women) | 0.15 (0.08) | 0.065 | 0.12 (0.05) | 0.012 | 0.13 (0.07) | 0.082 | 0.18 (0.15) | 0.214 | |
Age | −0.1 (0.03) | 0.001 | −0.11 (0.02) | <0.001 | −0.06 (0.02) | 0.007 | −0.07 (0.05) | 0.113 | |
Civil status (married/cohabiting) | −0.34 (0.07) | <0.001 | −0.14 (0.05) | 0.003 | −0.46 (0.06) | <0.001 | −0.26 (0.13) | 0.043 | |
Children (yes) | −0.17 (0.08) | 0.038 | −0.1 (0.05) | 0.034 | 0.03 (0.09) | 0.761 | −0.24 (0.15) | 0.101 | |
Education (Master’s or above) | −0.04 (0.07) | 0.572 | −0.09 (0.04) | 0.055 | −0.04 (0.07) | 0.621 | −0.28 (0.12) | 0.027 | |
Employment (part-time) | 0.14 (0.08) | 0.076 | 0.06 (0.05) | 0.239 | 0.08 (0.06) | 0.183 | 0.28 (0.11) | 0.014 | |
Place of work (healthcare as ref.) | |||||||||
Other | 0.1 (0.09) | 0.26 | 0.07 (0.06) | 0.193 | 0.09 (0.07) | 0.192 | 0.05 (0.13) | 0.724 | |
Public safety, police, fire services, etc. | 0.11 (0.13) | 0.395 | 0.08 (0.08) | 0.28 | 0.01 (0.09) | 0.897 | −0.12 (0.18) | 0.481 | |
Education | 0.02 (0.11) | 0.857 | 0.14 (0.07) | 0.031 | 0.04 (0.09) | 0.704 | 0.46 (0.22) | 0.04 | |
Trade industry | −0.01 (0.14) | 0.918 | 0.06 (0.09) | 0.505 | 0.21 (0.12) | 0.096 | 0.21 (0.23) | 0.356 | |
Living area (rural as ref.) | −0.02 (0.05) | 0.691 | 0.01 (0.03) | 0.78 | −0.01 (0.04) | 0.804 | −0.05 (0.12) | 0.715 | |
Time (November vs. April) | 0.23 (0.08) | 0.006 | −0.01 (0.05) | 0.889 | 0.19 (0.08) | 0.011 | −0.31 (0.13) | 0.02 | |
Loneliness | |||||||||
Gender (women) | 0.47 (0.49) | 0.337 | −0.13 (0.31) | 0.664 | −0.43 (0.41) | 0.297 | −0.77 (0.87) | 0.376 | |
Age | −0.36 (0.18) | 0.045 | −0.33 (0.11) | 0.003 | −0.2 (0.13) | 0.131 | −0.26 (0.28) | 0.35 | |
Civil status (married/cohabiting) | −2.23 (0.43) | < 0.001 | −0.86 (0.3) | 0.004 | −2.41 (0.32) | < 0.001 | −0.76 (0.78) | 0.327 | |
Children (yes) | −0.84 (0.5) | 0.097 | −0.26 (0.31) | 0.396 | −0.56 (0.5) | 0.264 | −0.04 (0.89) | 0.962 | |
Education (Master’s or above) | −0.08 (0.42) | 0.847 | −0.79 (0.28) | 0.004 | 0.04 (0.42) | 0.915 | −1.66 (0.74) | 0.026 | |
Employment (part-time) | 0.54 (0.46) | 0.242 | 0.2 (0.34) | 0.552 | 0.75 (0.35) | 0.031 | 0.68 (0.68) | 0.314 | |
Place of work (healthcare as ref.) | |||||||||
Other | 0.56 (0.52) | 0.284 | 0.43 (0.36) | 0.231 | 0.43 (0.38) | 0.257 | 0.35 (0.78) | 0.657 | |
Public safety, police, fire services, etc. | 0.93 (0.8) | 0.245 | 0.68 (0.49) | 0.165 | 0.47 (0.49) | 0.339 | 0.01 (1.05) | 0.997 | |
Education | −0.28 (0.65) | 0.666 | 0.54 (0.41) | 0.193 | 0.36 (0.53) | 0.501 | 3.12 (1.32) | 0.018 | |
Trade industry | −0.57 (0.84) | 0.497 | 0.03 (0.57) | 0.96 | 1.35 (0.71) | 0.057 | 3.94 (1.37) | 0.004 | |
Living area (rural as ref.) | −0.16 (0.32) | 0.612 | −0.1 (0.21) | 0.627 | −0.20 (0.23) | 0.381 | 0.36 (0.74) | 0.627 | |
Time (November vs. April) | 0.71 (0.5) | 0.157 | 0.34 (0.33) | 0.301 | 0.64 (0.44) | 0.145 | −1.07 (0.8) | 0.18 |
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Geirdal, A.K.Ø.; Price, D.; Schoultz, M.; Thygesen, H.; Ruffolo, M.; Leung, J.; Bonsaksen, T. The Significance of Demographic Variables on Psychosocial Health from the Early Stage and Nine Months after the COVID-19 Pandemic Outbreak. A Cross-National Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4345. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084345
Geirdal AKØ, Price D, Schoultz M, Thygesen H, Ruffolo M, Leung J, Bonsaksen T. The Significance of Demographic Variables on Psychosocial Health from the Early Stage and Nine Months after the COVID-19 Pandemic Outbreak. A Cross-National Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(8):4345. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084345
Chicago/Turabian StyleGeirdal, Amy K. Østertun, Daicia Price, Mariyana Schoultz, Hilde Thygesen, Mary Ruffolo, Janni Leung, and Tore Bonsaksen. 2021. "The Significance of Demographic Variables on Psychosocial Health from the Early Stage and Nine Months after the COVID-19 Pandemic Outbreak. A Cross-National Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 8: 4345. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084345