Work Participation among Women and Men in Sweden: A Register Study of 8.5 Million Individuals
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Sources
2.2. Study Population
2.3. Exposures
2.4. Outcomes
2.5. Covariates
2.6. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Baseline Characteristics (n, %) | Women (n = 4,182,581) | Men (n = 4,279,571) | p |
---|---|---|---|
Generation | |||
Traditionalists (pre-1946) | 935,073 (50.5) | 914,964 (49.5) | |
Baby Boomers (1946–1964) | 1,179,715 (49.1) | 1,221,028 (50.9) | |
Generation X (1965–1976) | 502,505 (49.2) | 827,210 (50.7) | |
Generation Y (1977–1995) | 1,168,332 (49.1) | 1,213,639 (51.0) | |
Generation Z (1996-) | 96,956 (48.6) | 102,730 (51.5) | <0.0001 |
Baseline year | |||
1995 | 3,596,348 (49.3) | 3,694,314 (50.7) | |
2000 | 277,055 (49.6) | 281,868 (50.4) | |
2005 | 80,601 (52.0) | 74,386 (48.0) | |
2010 | 110,624 (49.7) | 111,986 (50.3) | |
2015 | 117,953 (50.2) | 117,017 (49.8) | <0.0001 |
Level of achieved education | |||
Compulsory: <10 years | 1,071,624 (47.0) | 1,210,839 (53.1) | |
Tertiary: 10–12 years | 2,263,177 (49.9) | 2,271,472 (50.1) | |
Higher: >12 years | 847,780 (51.5) | 797,260 (48.5) | <0.0001 |
Income quintile (disposable income, SEK/year) | |||
1st (lowest) | 1,764,024 (52.5) | 1,596,679 (47.5) | |
2nd | 707,078 (59.3) | 485,416 (40.7) | |
3rd | 732,442 (56.6) | 562,535 (43.4) | |
4th | 577,906 (44.1) | 734,114 (56.0) | |
5th (highest) | 401,131 (30.8) | 900,827 (69.2) | <0.0001 |
Number of children aged <18 years living at home | |||
None | 2,457,758 (47.7) | 2,695,771 (52.3) | |
1 | 850,753 (52.3) | 776,303 (47.7) | |
2 | 606,364 (52.1) | 557,754 (47.99) | |
3+ | 267,706 (51.7) | 249,743 (48.3) | <0.0001 |
Country of birth | |||
Sweden | 3,433,012 (49.2) | 3,550,708 (50.8) | |
Other Nordic country | 160,167 (55.0) | 131,336 (45.1) | |
Other EU 25 | 126,861 (49.6) | 128,796 (50.4) | |
Outside the EU | 462,541 (49.7) | 468,731 (50.3) | <0.0001 |
Type of residential area | |||
City | 1,517,919 (50.0) | 1,521,024 (50.1) | |
Town | 1,487,415 (49.6) | 1,514,315 (50.5) | |
Rural area | 1,177,247 (48.6) | 1,244,232 (51.4) | <0.0001 |
Years in Paid Work 1 | Years on Disability Pension 2 | Years of Follow-Up | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | ||||||
Women | Men | p | Women | Men | p | Women | Men | |
Generation (birth year) | ||||||||
Traditionalists (pre-1946) | 2 ( < 0.5–8) | 3 (0–9) | <0.0001 | 4 (2–7) | 4 (2–7) | <0.0001 | 14 (9–18) | 15 (10–18) |
Baby Boomers (1946–1964) | 18 (12–21) | 19 (13–22) | <0.0001 | 9 (4–15) | 9 (4–15) | <0.0001 | 22 (22–22) | 22 (22–22) |
Generation X (1965–1976) | 16 (11–19) | 20 (14–22) | <0.0001 | 6 (3–12) | 8 (3–15) | <0.0001 | 22 (22–22) | 22 (22–22) |
Generation Y (1977–1995) | 6 (3–10) | 7 (4–12) | <0.0001 | 4 (2–7) | 4 (2–7) | <0.0001 | 22 (17–22) | 22 (17–22) |
Generation Z (1996-) | 1 (1–2) | 1 ( < 0.5–2) | <0.0001 | 1 (1–1) | 1 (1–2) | 0.0147 | 17 (17–17) | 17 (17–17) |
Baseline year | ||||||||
1995 | 11 (4–18) | 13 (5–20) | <0.0001 | 6 (2–11) | 2 (2–10) | <0.0001 | 22 (20–22) | 22 (20–22) |
2000 | 2 (1–5) | 2 (1–4) | 0.0482 | 3 (1–8) | 3 (1–7) | <0.0001 | 17 (17–17) | 17 (17–17) |
2005 | 7 (3–10) | 8 (4–11) | <0.0001 | 4 (2–9) | 5 (2–9) | 0.08 | 12 (12–12) | 12 (12–12) |
2010 | 4 (2–6) | 6 (3–7) | <0.0001 | 3 (2–5) | 3 (1–5) | 0.3 | 7 (7–7) | 7 (7–7) |
2015 | 2 ( < 0.5–2) | 2 (1–2) | <0.0001 | 2 (1–3) | 2 (1–3) | 0.9 | 2 (2–2) | 2 (2–2) |
All | 10 (3–18) | 5 (2–10) | 22 (17–22) |
IRR (95% CI) 1 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mutually-Adjusted 2 | Minimum-Adjusted 3 | Multivariable-Adjusted 4 | ||||
Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | |
Generation (birth year) | ||||||
Traditionalists (pre-1946) | 0.42 (0.42–0.42) | 0.42 (0.42–0.42) | 0.45 (0.45–0.45) | 0.42 (0.42–0.42) | 0.47 (0.47–0.47) | 0.44 (0.44–0.44) |
Baby Boomers (1946–1964) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) |
Generation X (1965–1976) | 0.98 (0.98–0.98) | 1.06 (1.06–1.06) | 1.06 (1.06–1.07) | 1.18 (1.18–1.18) | 1.08 (1.08–1.08) | 1.21 (1.20–1.21) |
Generation Y (1977–1995) | 0.51 (0.50–0.51) | 0.54 (0.54–0.54) | 0.63 (0.63–0.63) | 0.67 (0.67–0.679) | 0.64 (0.64–0.64) | 0.68 (0.68–0.68) |
Generation Z (1996-) | 0.13 (0.13–0.13) | 0.12 (0.12–0.12) | 0.15 (0.15–0.16) | 0.15 (0.14–0.15) | 0.16 (0.16–0.16) | 0.15 (0.15–0.15) |
Baseline year | ||||||
1995 | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) |
2000 | 0.68 (0.68–0.68) | 0.65 (0.64–0.65) | 0.70 (0.70–0.70) | 0.65 (0.65–0.66) | 0.69 (0.68–0.69) | 0.63 (0.63–0.64) |
2005 | 1.11 (1.10–1.11) | 1.10 (1.10–1.11) | 1.10 (1.10–1.11) | 1.11 (1.10–1.11) | 1.09 (1.08–1.09) | 1.05 (1.04–1.05) |
2010 | 1.13 (1.13–1.13) | 1.34 (1.33–1.34) | 1.23 (1.22–1.23) | 1.30 (1.30–1.31) | 1.21 (1.20–1.21) | 1.23 (1.22–1.23) |
2015 | 1.34 (1.33–1.35) | 1.51 (1.50–1.52) | 1.25 (1.24–1.26) | 1.43 (1.42–1.44) | 1.23 (1.22–1.23) | 1.35 (1.34–1.35) |
IRR (95% CI) 1 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Unadjusted 2 | Minimum-Adjusted 3 | Multivariable-Adjusted 4 | ||
Overall | Men | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) |
Women | 0.90 (0.90–0.90) | 0.91 (0.91–0.91) | 0.89 (0.89–0.90) | |
Generation (birth year) | ||||
Traditionalists (pre-1946) | Men | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) |
Women | 0.93 (0.92–0.93) | 1.11 (1.11–1.12) | 1.15 (1.14–1.15) | |
Baby Boomers (1946–1964) | Men | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) |
Women | 0.94 (0.94–0.94) | 0.96 (0.96–0.96) | 0.94 (0.94–0.94) | |
Generation X (1965–1976) | Men | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) |
Women | 0.86 (0.86–0.86) | 0.88 (0.88–0.88) | 0.88 (0.88–0.88) | |
Generation Y (1977–1995) | Men | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) |
Women | 0.87 (0.87–0.87) | 0.87 (0.87–0.87) | 0.87 (0.87–0.87) | |
Generation Z (1996-) | Men | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) | 1 (ref. cat.) |
Women | 1.04 (1.04–1.05) | 1.04 (1.03–1.05) | 1.04 (1.03–1.05) |
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Heikkilä, K.; Mittendorfer-Rutz, E.; Alexanderson, K.; Virtanen, M. Work Participation among Women and Men in Sweden: A Register Study of 8.5 Million Individuals. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4642. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094642
Heikkilä K, Mittendorfer-Rutz E, Alexanderson K, Virtanen M. Work Participation among Women and Men in Sweden: A Register Study of 8.5 Million Individuals. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(9):4642. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094642
Chicago/Turabian StyleHeikkilä, Katriina, Ellenor Mittendorfer-Rutz, Kristina Alexanderson, and Marianna Virtanen. 2021. "Work Participation among Women and Men in Sweden: A Register Study of 8.5 Million Individuals" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 9: 4642. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094642