Refugee Women with a History of Trauma: Gender Vulnerability in Relation to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Refugees
1.2. Gender Differences and PTSD: Traumatic Experiences in Refugee Women
2. Method
Literature Search and Study Selection
3. Results
3.1. PTSD and Other Mental Health Problems in Refugee Women
3.2. Differences in PTSD between Male and Female Refugees
3.3. Traumatic Experiences in Refugee Women: The Importance of Rape and Sexual Abuse
3.4. PTSD over Time
4. Discussion
Limitations and Future Research Lines
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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ID- Article | Authors and Year | Sample | Origin of Study | Assessment Objective | Instruments | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Robertson C.L., Halcon L., Savik K., Johnson D., (2006) [49] | N = 458 (M = 200; F = 258) | Somalia and South Central Ethiopia | PTSD (Trauma and Torture) | PCL-C | High levels of PTSD symptoms were found in women with many children. |
2. | Reedwood-Campbell L., Thind H., Howard M., (2008) [50] | N = 85 F | Kosovo | PTSD | HTQ | A fourth of the population scored high in PTSD. |
3. | Vojvoda D., Weine S.M., McGlashan T. (2008) [51] | N = 21 (M = 12; F = 9) | Bosnia | PTSD | PSS | Scores for PTSD severity were higher in women. A significant difference was observed at the three-and-a-half-year follow-up point. |
4. | Johnson K., Scott J., Rughita B. (2010) [52] | N = 998 (405 M; 593 F) | Democratic Republic of Congo | PTSD (Sexual violence) | PSS-I | The results showed that 50.1% of the population met the criteria of PTSD, with the highest scores being among women, and 70.2% of them met criteria based on experiences of sexual violence, with scores being higher among women. |
5. | Schalinski L., Elbert T., Schauer M. (2011) [53] | N = 53 F | Democratic Republic of Congo | PTSD and disassociation | PSS-I | Thirty-six subjects met all the criteria for PTSD and sexual assault was the most frequent traumatic event. The greater the disassociation and the higher the number of traumatic events, the greater the severity of PTSD. |
6. | Ssenyonga J., Owens V., Olema D.K. (2012) [54] | N = 89 (M = 33; F = 56) | Democratic Republic of Congo | PTSD | PSD | Forty-four subjects suffered PTSD, of which 33 were women who scored higher than men in intrusion, evasion, and hyper-activation symptoms and in general severity of PTSD. |
7. | Morof D.F., Sami S., Mangeni M (2014) [55] | N= 117 F | Democratic Republic of Congo and Somalia | PTSD (sexual and/or physical violence) | HTQ | Eighty-three women had PTSD symptoms (71% of the population). |
8. | Schalinski I., Moran J., Schauer M… (2014) [56] | N = 50 F (PTSD = 33; NO PTSD = 17) | Far and Middle East, The Balkans, Africa and India | PTSD and Disassociation | CAPS; Shut- D; IAPS. | Patients with PTSD displayed intrusive memories, while the control group (NO PTSD) did not report having such memories. The women with the most severe PTSD symptoms displayed greater disassociation. |
9. | Alpak G., Unal A. Bulbul F., (2015) [57] | N = 352 (M = 179; F = 173) | Syria and Turkey | PTSD | DSM-IV-TR | One hundred and eighteen of the participants were diagnosed with PTSD. Eleven of them suffered from acute PTSD, 105 from chronic PTSD and 2 from late onset PTSD. |
10. | Haldane J, Nickerson A. (2016) [58] | N = 91 (M = 60; F = 31) | Iran, Sri Lanka; Afghanistan and Iraq | PTSD (impact of gender in interpersonal non-interpersonal traumatic experiences) | HTQ | A significant relation was found between non-interpersonal trauma and symptoms of PTSD. In women, a relation was observed between PTSD symptoms and traumatic interpersonal events, while in men the significant association was between PTSD symptoms and non-interpersonal traumatic events. |
11. | Rometsch-Ogioun C., Denkinger J.K., Windthorst P., … (2018) [42] | - | Northern Iraq (Yazidí women) | Factors related with past histories of trauma. | Questionnaire designed by psychologists and psychologists | The psychological symptoms identified as particularly significant were nightmares, insomnia and depression. |
12. | Mhlongo M.D., Tomita A., Thela L. (2018) [59] | N = 157 | Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Mozambique, Ruanda, Uganda, Malawi and Zimbabwe. | Relation between experience of traumatic event and PTSD. | LEC; HTQ | Exposure to a higher number of traumatic events was associated with a higher likelihood to be at risk for PTSD. Exposure to sexual trauma was associated with a higher likelihood to be at risk for PTSD in women. |
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Vallejo-Martín, M.; Sánchez Sancha, A.; Canto, J.M. Refugee Women with a History of Trauma: Gender Vulnerability in Relation to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094806
Vallejo-Martín M, Sánchez Sancha A, Canto JM. Refugee Women with a History of Trauma: Gender Vulnerability in Relation to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(9):4806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094806
Chicago/Turabian StyleVallejo-Martín, Macarena, Ana Sánchez Sancha, and Jesús M. Canto. 2021. "Refugee Women with a History of Trauma: Gender Vulnerability in Relation to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 9: 4806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094806