Then and Now: Investigating Anthropometrics and Child Mortality among Females in Malawi
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Source
2.2. Study Area
2.3. Study Variables
2.4. Data Analyses
3. Results
BMI and Sociodemographic Profile Distribution
4. Discussion
4.1. Strength and Limitations
4.2. Practical Implications
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BMI | Body Mass Index |
DHS | Demographic and Health Survey |
MDHS | Malawi Demographic and Health Survey |
GPS | Global Positioning System |
ICE | Index of Concentration at the Extremes |
LMICs | Low- and Middle-Income Countries |
PSUs | Primary Sampling Unit |
SEAs | Standard Enumeration Areas |
SSA | Sub-Saharan Africa |
SDGs | Sustainable Development Goals |
USAID | United States Agency for International Development |
UNICEF | United Nations Children’s Fund |
WHO | World Health Organisation |
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Index |
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Period of Study | Total | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2000 (n = 11,663) | 2004–2005 (n = 10,249) | 2010 (n = 20,858) | 2015–2016 (n = 22,729) | (n = 65,499) | p Value | |
Information on Categorical Indicators | ||||||
(100%) | (100%) | (100%) | (100%) | (100%) | ||
Age Groups | <0.001 | |||||
15–24 | 5109 (43.8%) | 4432 (43.2%) | 8442 (40.5%) | 9358 (41.2%) | 27,341 (41.7%) | |
25–34 | 3378 (29.0%) | 3132 (30.6%) | 6733 (32.3%) | 6986 (30.7%) | 20,229 (30.9%) | |
35–49 | 3176 (27.2%) | 2685 (26.2%) | 5683 (27.2%) | 6385 (28.1%) | 17,929 (27.4%) | |
Residence | <0.001 | |||||
Urban | 1103 (9.5%) | 1469 (14.3%) | 2884 (13.8%) | 4921 (21.7%) | 10,377 (15.8%) | |
Rural | 10,560 (90.5%) | 8780 (85.7%) | 17,974 (86.2%) | 17,808 (78.3%) | 55,122 (84.2%) | |
Education | 0.02 | |||||
No education | 9124 (78.2%) | 7717 (75.3%) | 14,908 (71.5%) | 14,532 (63.9%) | 46,281 (70.7%) | |
Primary | 2015 (17.3%) | 1975 (19.3%) | 4549 (21.8%) | 5964 (26.2%) | 14,503 (22.1%) | |
Secondary | 506 (4.3%) | 493 (4.8%) | 1098 (5.3%) | 1588 (7.0%) | 3685 (5.6%) | |
Tertiary | 18 (0.2%) | 64 (0.6%) | 303 (1.5%) | 645 (2.8%) | 1030 (1.6%) | |
Wealth Quintile | <0.001 | |||||
Poorest | 2413 (20.7%) | 1834 (17.9%) | 4071 (19.5%) | 3889 (17.1%) | 12,207 (18.6%) | |
Poorer | 2350 (20.1%) | 2003 (19.5%) | 4008 (19.2%) | 4037 (17.8%) | 12,398 (18.9%) | |
Middle | 2569 (22.0%) | 2152 (21.0%) | 4192 (20.1%) | 4170 (18.3%) | 13,083 (20.0%) | |
Richer | 2395 (20.5%) | 2135 (20.8%) | 4317 (20.7%) | 4538 (20.0%) | 13,385 (20.4%) | |
Richest | 1936 (16.6%) | 2125 (20.7%) | 4270 (20.5%) | 6095 (26.8%) | 14,426 (22.0%) | |
Region | 0.01 | |||||
North | 1925 (16.5%) | 1410 (13.8%) | 3794 (18.2%) | 4440 (19.5%) | 11,569 (17.7%) | |
Central | 3932 (33.7%) | 3656 (35.7%) | 7117 (34.1%) | 7773 (34.2%) | 22,478 (34.3%) | |
South | 5806 (49.8%) | 5183 (50.6%) | 9947 (47.7%) | 10,516 (46.3%) | 31,452 (48.0%) | |
BMI Categories | <0.001 | |||||
Underweight | 1049 (9.0%) | 948 (9.2%) | 1658 (7.9%) | 1689 (7.4%) | 5344 (8.2%) | |
Normal | 9122 (78.2%) | 7942 (77.5%) | 14,597 (70.0%) | 15,913 (70.0%) | 47,574 (72.6%) | |
Overweight | 1190 (10.2%) | 1097 (10.7%) | 2886 (13.8%) | 3459 (15.2%) | 8632 (13.2%) | |
Obese | 302 (2.6%) | 262 (2.6%) | 1717 (8.2%) | 1668 (7.3%) | 3949 (6.0%) | |
Information on Numerical Indicators | ||||||
Number of Children Ever Born | <0.001 | |||||
Mean (SD) | 3.13 (2.89) | 3.17 (2.77) | 3.19 (2.76) | 2.84 (2.48) | 3.06 (2.70) | |
Range | 0.00–16.00 | 0.00–16.00 | 0.00–17.00 | 0.00–15.00 | 0.000–17.00 | |
Number of Children Dead to a Mother/Female | <0.001 | |||||
Mean (SD) | 0.68 (1.17) | 0.57 (1.05) | 0.50 (0.96) | 0.30 (0.73) | 0.47 (0.96) | |
Range | 0.00–10.00 | 0.00–11.00 | 0.00–11.00 | 0.00–9.00 | 0.00–11.00 |
Mortality Levels | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Body Mass Index (BMI) Categories | ||||||||
Indicator | Total Population | Underweight | Normal | Overweight and Obese | ||||
Mother’s Age | 2000 | 2015–2016 | 2000 | 2015–2016 | 2000 | 2015–2016 | 2000 | 2015–2016 |
15–19 | 12.83 | 17.48 | 14.03 | 19.87 | 13.33 | 17.96 | 12.1 | 19.58 |
20–24 | 12.99 | 19.45 | 12.61 | 18.67 | 13.27 | 20.04 | 13.59 | 20.24 |
25–29 | 12.03 | 18.96 | 12.31 | 18.55 | 11.85 | 19.32 | 13.55 | 18.69 |
30–34 | 12.72 | 17.38 | 12.05 | 18.52 | 12.68 | 18.2 | 12.51 | 18.19 |
35–39 | 12.12 | 16.74 | 11 | 17.22 | 12.04 | 17.16 | 13.22 | 17.71 |
40–44 | 11.8 | 15.75 | 10.36 | 15.27 | 11.42 | 16 | 12.76 | 16.43 |
45–49 | 10.85 | 14.77 | 10.14 | 15.05 | 10.53 | 15.41 | 13.1 | 15.87 |
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Simmons, S.S.; Hagan, J.E., Jr.; Schack, T. Then and Now: Investigating Anthropometrics and Child Mortality among Females in Malawi. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 6171. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106171
Simmons SS, Hagan JE Jr., Schack T. Then and Now: Investigating Anthropometrics and Child Mortality among Females in Malawi. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(10):6171. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106171
Chicago/Turabian StyleSimmons, Sally Sonia, John Elvis Hagan, Jr., and Thomas Schack. 2022. "Then and Now: Investigating Anthropometrics and Child Mortality among Females in Malawi" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 10: 6171. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106171