Does Training Motivation Influence Resilience Training Outcome on Chronic Stress? Results from an Interventional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Study Design
2.2. Intervention
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Chronic Stress
2.3.2. Vital Exhaustion
2.3.3. Symptoms of Depression
2.3.4. Training Motivation
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participants’ Characteristics
3.2. Differences between the Intervention and Control Group in Chronic Stress, Vital Exhaustion and Symptoms of Depression
3.3. Correlational Analysis between Motivation, Chronic Stress, Vital Exhaustion and Symptoms of Depression
3.4. Regression Analysis with Motivation as a Predictor for Changes in Chronic Stress, Vital Exhaustion, and Symptoms of Depression
3.5. Influence of Motivation on Resilience Training Effects
3.6. Reliable Change Index
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Lazarus, R.S.; Folkman, S. Stress, Appraisal and Coping; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 1984. [Google Scholar]
- Giles, G.E.; Mahoney, C.R.; Brunyé, T.T.; Taylor, H.A.; Kanarek, R.B. Stress Effects on Mood, HPA Axis, and Autonomic Response: Comparison of Three Psychosocial Stress Paradigms. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e113618. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lee, J.-S.; Joo, E.-J.; Choi, K.-S. Perceived Stress and Self-esteem Mediate the Effects of Work-related Stress on Depression. Stress Health 2013, 29, 75–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Szeto, A.C.H.; Dobson, K.S. Mental disorders and their association with perceived work stress: An investigation of the 2010 Canadian Community Health Survey. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 2013, 18, 191–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Smoller, J.W. The Genetics of Stress-Related Disorders: PTSD, Depression, and Anxiety Disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016, 41, 297–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Noser, E.; Fischer, S.; Ruppen, J.; Ehlert, U. Psychobiological stress in vital exhaustion. Findings from the Men Stress 40+ study. J. Psychosom. Res. 2018, 105, 14–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bonanno, G.A.; Romero, S.A.; Klein, S.I. The Temporal Elements of Psychological Resilience: An Integrative Framework for the Study of Individuals, Families, and Communities. Psychol. Inq. 2015, 26, 139–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leppin, A.L.; Bora, P.R.; Tilburt, J.C.; Gionfriddo, M.; Zeballos-Palacios, C.; Dulohery, M.M.; Sood, A.; Erwin, P.J.; Brito, J.P.; Boehmer, K.R.; et al. The Efficacy of Resiliency Training Programs: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e111420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Windle, G. The contribution of resilience to healthy ageing. Perspect. Public Health 2012, 132, 159–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bonanno, G.A. Loss, Trauma, and Human Resilience: Have We Underestimated the Human Capacity to Thrive After Extremely Aversive Events? Am. Psychol. 2004, 59, 20–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kalisch, R.; Baker, D.G.; Basten, U.; Boks, M.P.; Bonanno, G.A.; Brummelman, E.; Chmitorz, A.; Fernandez, G.; Fiebach, C.J.; Galatzer-Levy, I.; et al. The resilience framework as a strategy to combat stress-related disorders. Nat. Hum. Behav. 2017, 1, 784–790. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lang, U. Resilienz-Resilience; Kohlhammer: Stuttgart, Germany, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Masten, A.S.; Cicchetti, D. Risk and resilience in development and psychopathology: The legacy of Norman Garmezy. Dev. Psychopathol. 2012, 24, 333–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Masten, A.S.; Tellegen, A. Resilience in developmental psychopathology: Contributions of the Project Competence Longitudinal Study. Dev. Psychopathol. 2012, 24, 345–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Leak, R.K.; Calabrese, E.J.; Kozumbo, W.J.; Gidday, J.M.; Johnson, T.E.; Mitchell, J.R.; Ozaki, C.K.; Wetzker, R.; Bast, A.; Belz, R.G.; et al. Enhancing and Extending Biological Performance and Resilience. Dose-Response 2018, 16, 1559325818784501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Mjelde, F.V.; Smith, K.; Lunde, P.; Espevik, R. Military teams-A demand for resilience. Work 2016, 54, 283–294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sudom, K.A.; Lee, J.E.C.; Zamorski, M.A. A Longitudinal Pilot Study of Resilience in Canadian Military Personnel. Stress Health 2014, 30, 377–385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chmitorz, A.; Kunzler, A.; Helmreich, I.; Tüscher, O.; Kalisch, R.; Kubiak, T.; Wessa, M.; Lieb, K. Intervention studies to foster resilience—A systematic review and proposal for a resilience framework in future intervention studies. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2018, 59, 78–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vanhove, A.J.; Herian, M.N.; Perez, A.L.U.; Harms, P.D.; Lester, P.B. Can resilience be developed at work? A meta-analytic review of resilience-building programme effectiveness. J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 2016, 89, 278–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Adler, A.B.; Bliese, P.D.; Pickering, M.A.; Hammermeister, J.; Williams, J.; Harada, C.; Csoka, L.; Holliday, B.; Ohlson, C. Mental skills training with basic combat training soldiers: A group-randomized trial. J. Appl. Psychol. 2015, 100, 1752–1764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Joyce, S.; Shand, F.; Tighe, J.; Laurent, S.J.; Bryant, R.A.; Harvey, S.B. Road to resilience: A systematic review and meta-analysis of resilience training programmes and interventions. BMJ Open 2018, 8, e017858. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Arnetz, B.B.; Nevedal, D.C.; Lumley, M.A.; Backman, L.; Lublin, A. Trauma Resilience Training for Police: Psychophysiological and Performance Effects. J. Police Crim. Psychol. 2009, 24, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Domes, G.; Stächele, T.; von Dawans, B.; Heinrichs, M. Effects of internet-based stress management on acute cortisol stress reactivity: Preliminary evidence using the Trier Social Stress Test for Groups (TSST-G). Psychoneuroendocrinology 2019, 105, 117–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rose, R.D.; Buckey, J.C.; Zbozinek, T.D.; Motivala, S.J.; Glenn, D.E.; Cartreine, J.A.; Craske, M.G. A randomized controlled trial of a self-guided, multimedia, stress management and resilience training program. Behav. Res. Ther. 2013, 51, 106–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Christopher, M.S.; Hunsinger, M.; Goerling, L.R.J.; Bowen, S.; Rogers, B.S.; Gross, C.R.; Dapolonia, E.; Pruessner, J.C. Mindfulness-based resilience training to reduce health risk, stress reactivity, and aggression among law enforcement officers: A feasibility and preliminary efficacy trial. Psychiatry Res. 2018, 264, 104–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Adler, A.B.; Williams, J.; McGurk, D.; Moss, A.; Bliese, P. Resilience Training with Soldiers during Basic Combat Training: Randomisation by Platoon. Appl. Psychol. Health Well-Being 2015, 7, 85–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Crane, M.F.; Boga, D.; Karin, E.; Gucciardi, D.F.; Rapport, F.; Callen, J.; Sinclair, L. Strengthening resilience in military officer cadets: A group-randomized controlled trial of coping and emotion regulatory self-reflection training. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2019, 87, 125–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carr, W.; Bradley, D.; Ogle, A.D.; Eonta, S.E.; Pyle, B.L.; Santiago, P. Resilience Training in a Population of Deployed Personnel. Mil. Psychol. 2013, 25, 148–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brand, S.; Nakkas, C.; Annen, H. Psychological distress and coping in military cadre candidates. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 2016, ume 12, 2237–2243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sefidan, S.; Pramstaller, M.; La Marca, R.; Wyss, T.; Sadeghi-Bahmani, D.; Annen, H.; Brand, S. Resilience as a Protective Factor in Basic Military Training, a Longitudinal Study of the Swiss Armed Forces. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6077. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elliman, T.D.; Schwalb, M.E.; Adler, A.B. Sleep deprivation and hazardous unintended sleep in US army drill sergeants. Sleep Health 2020, 6, 350–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adler, A.B.; Castro, C.A. An Occupational Mental Health Model for the Military. Mil. Behav. Health 2013, 1, 41–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lieberman, H.R.; Bathalon, G.P.; Falco, C.M.; Kramer, F.M.; Morgan, C.A., III; Niro, P. Severe decrements in cognition function and mood induced by sleep loss, heat, dehydration, and undernutrition during simulated combat. Biol. Psychiatry 2005, 57, 422–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McGurk, D.; Cotting, D.I.; Britt, T.W.; Adler, A.B. Joining the ranks: The role of indoctrination in transforming civilians to service members. In Military Life: The Psychology of Serving in Peace and Combat: Operational Stress; Adler, A.B., Castro, C.A., Britt, T.W., Eds.; Praeger Security International: Westport, CT, USA, 2006; pp. 13–31. [Google Scholar]
- Williams, A.; Hagerty, B.M.; Yousha, S.M.; Horrocks, J.; Hoyle, K.S.; Liu, D. Psychosocial Effects of the Boot Strap Intervention in Navy Recruits. Mil. Med. 2004, 169, 814–820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Williams, A.; Hagerty, B.M.; Andrei, A.-C.; Yousha, S.M.; Hirth, R.A.; Hoyle, K.S. STARS: Strategies to Assist Navy Recruits’ Success. Mil. Med. 2007, 172, 942–949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cohn, A.; Pakenham, K. Efficacy of a Cognitive-Behavioral Program to Improve Psychological Adjustment among Soldiers in Recruit Training. Mil. Med. 2008, 173, 1151–1157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cacioppo, J.T.; Adler, A.B.; Lester, P.B.; McGurk, D.; Thomas, J.L.; Chen, H.-Y.; Cacioppo, S. Building social resilience in soldiers: A double dissociative randomized controlled study. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 2015, 109, 90–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jones, N.; Whelan, C.; Harden, L.; Macfarlane, A.; Burdett, H.; Greenberg, N. Resilience-based intervention for UK military recruits: A randomised controlled trial. Occup. Environ. Med. 2019, 76, 90–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Flannery, M. Self-Determination Theory: Intrinsic Motivation and Behavioral Change. Oncol. Nurs. Forum 2017, 44, 155–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Von Treuer, K.; McHardy, K.; Earl, C. The influence of organisational commitment, job involvement and utility perceptions on trainees’ motivation to improve work through learning. J. Vocat. Educ. Train. 2013, 65, 606–620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Colquitt, J.A.; Lepine, J.A.; Noe, R.A. Toward an integrative theory of training motivation: A meta-analytic path analysis of 20 years of research. J. Appl. Psychol. 2000, 85, 678–707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ma, C.-C.; Chang, H.-P. Training Transfer in the Taiwanese Hotel Industry: Factors and Outcomes. Soc. Behav. Pers. Int. J. 2013, 41, 761–776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lauzier, M.; Mercier, G. The effect of error orientation, motivation to learn, and social support on training transfer intentions: A moderated mediation model. Can. J. Adm. Sci. 2018, 35, 419–428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carter, J.C.; Kelly, A.C. Autonomous and controlled motivation for eating disorders treatment: Baseline predictors and relationship to treatment outcome. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 2015, 54, 76–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Espel, H.M.; Goldstein, S.; Manasse, S.M.; Juarascio, A.S. Experiential acceptance, motivation for recovery, and treatment outcome in eating disorders. Eat. Weight Disord. 2016, 21, 205–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ellis, A. Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy: A Comprehensive Method of Treating Human Disturbances; Birch Lane: New York, NY, USA, 1994. [Google Scholar]
- Kanfer, F.H.; Saslow, G. Behavioral diagnosis. In Behavior Therapy: Appraisal and Status; Franks, C., Ed.; McGraw Hill: New York, NY, USA, 1969; pp. 417–444. [Google Scholar]
- Reivich, K.J.; Shatté, A. The Resilience Factor: 7 Keys to Finding Your Inner Strength and Overcoming Life’s Hurdles; Three Rivers Press: New York, NY, USA, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Reivich, K.J.; Seligman, M.E.P.; McBride, S. Master resilience training in the U.S. Army. Am. Psychol. 2011, 66, 25–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Endler, N.S.; Parker, J.D. Multidimensional assessment of coping: A critical evaluation. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 1990, 58, 844–854. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hanin, Y.L. Emotions and athletic performance: Individual zones of optimal functioning model. Eur. Yearb. Sport Psychol. 1997, 1, 29–72. [Google Scholar]
- Seiler, R.; Stock, A. Handbuch Psychotraining im Sport: Methoden im Überblick [Handbook of Psychotraining in Sport: Methods at a Glance]; Rowohlt: Hamburg, Germany, 1994. [Google Scholar]
- Yerkes, R.M.; Dodson, J.D. The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. J. Comp. Neurol. Psychol. 1908, 18, 459–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gable, S.L.; Reis, H.T.; Impett, E.A.; Asher, E.R. What Do You Do When Things Go Right? The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Benefits of Sharing Positive Events. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 2004, 87, 228–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kamins, M.L.; Dweck, C.S. Person versus process praise and criticism: Implications for contingent self-worth and coping. Dev. Psychol. 1999, 35, 835–847. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peterson, C.; Seligman, M.E.P. Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Vopel, K.W. Interaktionsspiele I—Lebendiges Lernen und Lehren [Interaction Games I—Living Learning and Teaching]; Iskopress Verlags GmbH: Salzhausen, Germany, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Fliege, H.; Rose, M.; Arck, P.; Levenstein, S.; Klapp, B.F. Validierung des “Perceived Stress Questionnaire” (PSQ) an einer deutschen Stichprobe. Diagnostica 2001, 47, 142–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- von Känel, R.; Bellingrath, S.; Kudielka, B.M. Association of vital exhaustion and depressive symptoms with changes in fibrin D-dimer to acute psychosocial stress. J. Psychosom. Res. 2009, 67, 93–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hautzinger, M.; Bailer, M. Allgemeine Depressionsskala [General Depression Scale]; Beltz: Weinheim, Germany, 1993. [Google Scholar]
- Aitken, R.C. Measurement of feelings using visual analogue scales. Proc. R. Soc. Med. 1969, 62, 989–993. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Verma, J.P. Repeated Measures Design for Empirical Researchers; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Warner, R.M. Applied Statistics: From Bivariate through Multivariate Techniques, 2nd ed.; Sage Publications Ltd.: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Jacobson, N.S.; Truax, P. Clinical significance: A statistical approach to defining meaningful change in psychotherapy research. J. Consult Clin. Psychol. 1991, 59, 12–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cohen, J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, 2nd ed.; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahwah, NJ, USA, 1988. [Google Scholar]
- Cohen, J. A power primer. Psychol. Bull. 1992, 112, 155–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Boesch, M.; Sefidan, S.; Annen, H.; Ehlert, U.; Roos, L.; Van Uum, S.; Russell, E.; Koren, G.; La Marca, R. Hair cortisol concentration is unaffected by basic military training, but related to sociodemographic and environmental factors. Stress 2015, 18, 35–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Feddersen, J.; Metcalfe, R.; Wooden, M. Subjective wellbeing: Why weather matters. J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. A Stat. Soc. 2016, 179, 203–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ledford, A.K.; Dixon, D.; Luning, C.R.; Martin, B.J.; Miles, P.C.; Beckner, M.; Bennett, D.; Conley, J.; Nindl, B.C. Psychological and Physiological Predictors of Resilience in Navy SEAL Training. Behav. Med. 2020, 46, 290–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eve, P.; Kangas, M. Posttraumatic growth following trauma: Is growth accelerated or a reflection of cognitive maturation? Humanist. Psychol. 2015, 43, 354–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lester, P.B.; Harms, P.D.; Herian, M.N.; Krasikova, D.V.; Beal, S.J. The Comprehensive Soldier Fitness program evaluation: Longitudinal Analysis of the Impact of Master Resilience Training on Self-Reported Resilience and Psychological Health Data (Report #3); Publications of Affiliated Faculty, Nebraska Public Policy Center: Lincoln, NE, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Deeks, J.; Dinnes, J.; D’Amico, R.; Sowden, A.J.; Sakarovitch, C.; Song, F.; Petticrew, M.; Altman, D.G.; The International Stroke Trial Collaborative Group; The European Carotid Surgery Trial Collaborative Group. Evaluating non-randomised intervention studies. Health Technol. Assess. 2003, 7, 1–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Krieger, N.; Smith, K.; Naishadham, D.; Hartman, C.; Barbeau, E.M. Experiences of discrimination: Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Soc. Sci. Med. 2005, 61, 1576–1596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Goldammer, P.; Annen, H.; Stöckli, P.L.; Jonas, K. Careless responding in questionnaire measures: Detection, impact, and remedies. Leadersh. Q. 2020, 31, 101384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Groups | Statistics | ||
---|---|---|---|
Intervention | Control | ||
M (SD) | M (SD) | ||
N | 62 | 65 | |
Age (in years) | 20.85 (1.32) | 21.03 (1.80) | t(117.40) = −0.63, p = 0.529; d = 0.11) |
Education Level | n (%) | n (%) | χ2 (N = 127; df = 1) = 0.162, p = 0.69 |
Upper secondary school | 96.8% | 95.4% | |
Tertiary level | 3.2% | 4.6% |
Time Points | Factors | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pretest | Posttest | Time | Group | Time × Group Interaction | ||||||
IG | CG | IG | CG | |||||||
M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | F | ηp2 | F | ηp2 | F | ηp2 | |
Chronic stress | 0.31 (0.13) | 0.25 (0.11) | 0.31 (0.13) | 0.29 (0.13) | 3.71 | 0.029 [S] | 3.60 | 0.028 [S] | 3.17 | 0.025 [S] |
Vital exhaustion | 5.11 (3.63) | 3.51 (3.39) | 4.50 (3.41) | 3.78 (3.89) | 0.41 | 0.003 [T] | 4.01 * | 0.031 [S] | 2.84 | 0.022 [S] |
Symptoms of depression | 12.40 (7.23) | 8.48 (4.44) | 9.68 (6.73) | 7.92 (5.43) | 9.68 ** | 0.072 [M] | 9.26 ** | 0.069 [M] | 4.25 * | 0.033 [S] |
Variable | 1 a | 2 b | 3 b | 4 b | 5 b | 6 b | 7 b |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Motivation | |||||||
2. Chronic stress pre | 0.20 | ||||||
3. Chronic stress post | −0.05 | 0.66 *** | |||||
4. Vital exhaustion pre | 0.14 | 0.53 *** | 0.49 *** | ||||
5. Vital exhaustion post | −0.17 | 0.46 *** | 0.62 *** | 0.66 *** | |||
6. Symptoms of depression pre | 0.10 | 0.62 *** | 0.55 *** | 0.44 *** | 0.40 *** | ||
7. Symptoms of depression post | −0.14 | 0.66 *** | 0.65 *** | 0.34 *** | 0.51 *** | 0.53 *** |
Time Points | Factors | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pretest | Post-test | Time | Group | Time × Group Interaction | ||||||||
Mhigh | Mlow | CG | Mhigh | Mlow | CG | |||||||
M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | F | ηp2 | F | ηp2 | F | ηp2 | |
Chronic stress | 0.34 (0.12) | 0.26 (0.12) | 0.25 (0.11) | 0.31 (0.14) | 0.31 (0.12) | 0.29 (0.13) | 1.91 | 0.015 [T] | 2.76 | 0.043 [S] | 6.17 ** | 0.091 [M] |
Vital exhaustion | 5.84 (3.91) | 4.33 (3.19) | 3.51 (3.39) | 3.84 (3.14) | 5.20 (3.60) | 3.78 (3.89) | 1.16 | 0.009 [T] | 1.99 | 0.031 [S] | 9.66 *** | 0.135 [M] |
Symptoms of depression | 13.87 (8.42) | 10.83 (5.39) | 8.48 (4.44) | 9.59 (7.90) | 9.76 (5.35) | 7.92 (5.43) | 12.72 *** | 0.093 [M] | 5.21 ** | 0.078 [M] | 4.52 * | 0.068 [M] |
Outcome | Mhigh (n = 32) | Mlow (n = 30) | CG (n = 65) | Fisher’s Exact Test, Cramér’s V | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chronic Stress | Increase | 3% | 7% | 8% | p = 0.799, V = 0.078 [S] |
Decrease | 9% | 0% | 2% | p = 0.111, V = 0.210 [S] | |
Vital exhaustion | Increase | 0% | 3% | 5% | p = 0.672, V = 0.109 [S] |
Decrease | 13% | 0% | 0% | p = 0.006, V = 0.311 [M] | |
Symptoms of depression | Increase | 3% | 3% | 2% | p = 0.800, V = 0.056 [S] |
Decrease | 25% | 3% | 3% | p = 0.002, V = 0.337 [M] |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Niederhauser, M.; Zueger, R.; Sefidan, S.; Annen, H.; Brand, S.; Sadeghi-Bahmani, D. Does Training Motivation Influence Resilience Training Outcome on Chronic Stress? Results from an Interventional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 6179. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106179
Niederhauser M, Zueger R, Sefidan S, Annen H, Brand S, Sadeghi-Bahmani D. Does Training Motivation Influence Resilience Training Outcome on Chronic Stress? Results from an Interventional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(10):6179. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106179
Chicago/Turabian StyleNiederhauser, Madlaina, Regula Zueger, Sandra Sefidan, Hubert Annen, Serge Brand, and Dena Sadeghi-Bahmani. 2022. "Does Training Motivation Influence Resilience Training Outcome on Chronic Stress? Results from an Interventional Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 10: 6179. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106179