Diabetes Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors among Women in a Rural District of Nepal Using HbA1c as a Diagnostic Tool: A Population-Based Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design, Study Site and Study Population
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Measurement of Anthropometric Variables
2.4. Definition of Variables
2.5. Statistical Analysis
2.6. Ethics Statement
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics
3.2. Prevalence of Diabetes
3.3. Factors Associated with Diabetes
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics (n = 757) | n (%)/Mean ± SD | HbA1c Mean ± SD | p Value |
---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 43.0 ± 14.0 | ||
HbA1c (%) | 5.8 ± 0.8 | ||
Age groups (years) | <0.001 # | ||
17–34 | 210 (27.7) | 5.7 ± 0.8 | * |
35–44 | 230 (30.4) | 5.7 ± 0.8 | 0.860 |
45–54 | 173 (22.9) | 5.7 ± 0.9 | 0.825 |
≥55 | 144 (19.0) | 6.1 ± 1.0 | <0.001 |
Ethnicity | 0.639 # | ||
Dalit | 79 (10.5) | 5.9 ± 0.7 | |
Adhivasi/Janajati | 596 (78.7) | 5.8 ± 0.9 | |
Brahmin/Chhetri | 82 (10.8) | 5.7 ± 1.1 | |
Educational status | 0.798 # | ||
Uneducated | 663 (87.6) | 5.7 ± 1.0 | |
Educated | 94 (12.4) | 5.8 ± 0.8 | |
Monthly household income a (NPR) | 0.673 # | ||
≤24,000 | 223 (30.5) | 5.8 ± 0.9 | |
>24,000 | 507 (69.5) | 5.8 ± 0.8 | |
Number of children | 3.5 ± 1.9 | ||
Parity | 0.334 # | ||
Null | 21 (2.8) | 5.6 ± 0.5 | |
1–3 | 377 (50.0) | 5.8 ± 0.9 | |
>3 | 359 (47.2) | 5.8 ± 0.9 | |
Dietary factors | |||
Vegetarian diet b | 0.858 # | ||
Yes | 35 (4.6) | 5.8 ± 0.9 | |
No | 721 (95.4) | 5.9 ± 0.9 | |
Instant noodle intake | 0.002 # | ||
<2 times a week | 506 (66.8) | 5.7 ± 0.8 | |
≥2 times a week | 251 (33.2) | 5.9 ± 0.9 | |
Milk intake | 0.052 # | ||
≥2 times a week | 289 (38.2) | 5.9 ± 0.8 | |
<2 times a week | 468 (61.8) | 5.7 ± 0.9 | |
Smoking status | 0.131 # | ||
Current | 198 (26.2) | 5.9 ± 0.8 | |
Former | 46 (6.0) | 5.9 ± 1.0 | |
Never | 513 (67.8) | 5.7 ± 0.9 | |
Anthropometric measurements c | |||
Height (cm) | 149.3 ± 6.9 | ||
Weight (kg) | 50.7 ± 9.7 | ||
BMI c (kg/m2) | 22.8 ± 4.2 | ||
BMI c (kg/m2), Asian cut-offs | 0.224 # | ||
Normal (18.5–22.9) | 359 (50.0) | 5.7 ± 0.8 | |
Underweight (<18.5) | 66 (9.2) | 5.8 ± 0.8 | |
Overweight/obese (>23.0) | 292 (40.8) | 5.8 ± 1.0 | |
WC d (cm), Asian cut-offs | 77.8 ± 9.1 |
Characteristics (n = 757) | Diabetes Status | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Normal | Prediabetes | Diabetes | ||
n = 363 (48) | n = 292 (38.5) | n = 102 (13.5) | p Value | |
HbA1c (%), mean ± SD | 5.2 ± 0.4 | 6.0 ± 0.2 | 7.3 ± 1.1 | |
Age (years), mean ± SD | 41.0 ± 12.6 | 44.0 ± 14.7 | 47.2 ± 15.2 | <0.001 |
Age groups (years), n (%) | <0.001 | |||
17–34 (n = 210) | 113 (53.8) | 74 (35.2) | 23 (11.0) | |
35–44 (n = 230) | 116 (50.4) | 88 (38.3) | 26 (11.3) | |
45–54 (n = 173) | 87 (50.3) | 65 (37.6) | 21 (12.1) | |
≥55 (n = 144) | 47 (32.6) | 65 (45.1) | 32 (22.3) | |
Ethnicity, n (%) | <0.001 | |||
Dalit (n = 79) | 22 (27.8) | 48 (60.8) | 9 (11.4) | |
Adhivasi/Janajati (n = 596) | 289 (48.5) | 227 (38.1) | 80 (13.4) | |
Brahmin/Chhetri (n = 82) | 52 (63.4) | 17 (20.7) | 13 (15.9) | |
Educational status, n (%) | 0.651 | |||
Uneducated (n = 663) | 315 (47.5) | 256 (38.6) | 92 (13.9) | |
Educated (n = 94) | 48 (51.0) | 36 (38.3) | 10 (10.7) | |
Number of children, mean ± SD | 3.4 ± 1.8 | 3.6 ± 1.9 | 3.8 ± 1.8 | 0.068 |
Number of children, n (%) | 0.283 | |||
Null (n = 21) | 13 (62.0) | 7 (33.2) | 1 (4.8) | |
1–3 (n = 377) | 184 (48.8) | 149 (39.5) | 44 (11.7) | |
<3 (n = 359) | 166 (46.0) | 136 (38.0) | 57 (16.0) | |
Dietary status | ||||
Vegetarian diet a, n (%) | 0.233 | |||
Yes (n = 35) | 16 (45.7) | 11 (31.4) | 8 (22.9) | |
No (n = 721) | 346 (48.0) | 281 (39.0) | 94 (13.0) | |
Milk intake, n (%) | 0.002 | |||
≥2 times a week (n = 290) | 121 (41.5) | 116 (40.1) | 53 (18.3) | |
<2 times a week (n = 467) | 242 (52.0) | 176 (37.5) | 49 (10.5) | |
Instant noodle intake, n (%) | <0.001 | |||
≥2 times a week (n = 251) | 98 (39.0) | 104 (41.5) | 49 (19.5) | |
<2 times a week (n = 506) | 265 (52.5) | 188 (37.0) | 53 (10.5) | |
Smoking status, n (%) | 0.008 | |||
Current (n = 198) | 76 (38.4) | 94 (47.5) | 28 (14.1) | |
Former (n = 46) | 18 (39.1) | 21 (45.7) | 7 (15.2) | |
Never (n = 513) | 269 (52.4) | 178 (34.7) | 67 (13.0) | |
BMI b (kg/m2), mean ± SD | 23.0 ± 4.4 | 22.3 ± 3.8 | 23.5 ± 5.5 | 0.024 |
WC c (cm), mean ± SD | 77.6 ± 9.4 | 77.7 ± 8.7 | 79.2 ± 9.2 | 0.340 |
Characteristics | Normal n (%) | Diabetes n (%) | COR a (95% CI) | p Value | AOR b (95% CI) | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age group, years | ||||||
17–34 | 188 (89.5) | 23 (10.5) | 1 | |||
35–44 | 204 (88.7) | 26 (11.3) | 1.0 (0.57, 1.88) | 0.907 | ||
45–54 | 152 (87.9) | 21 (12.1) | 1.2 (0.60, 2.10) | 0.717 | ||
≥55 | 112 (77.8) | 32 (22.2) | 2.3 (1.30, 4.17) | 0.005 | ||
Ethnicity | ||||||
Adhivasi/Janajati | 516 (86.6) | 80 (13.4) | 1 | |||
Brahmin/Chhetri | 69 (84.1) | 13 (15.8) | 1.2 (0.64, 2.30) | 0.549 | 1.1 (0.60, 2.18) | 0.682 |
Dalit | 70 (88.6) | 9 (11.4) | 0.8 (0.40, 1.73) | 0.617 | 0.8 (0.40, 1.76) | 0.651 |
Educational Status | ||||||
Educated c | 84 (89.4) | 10 (10.6) | 1 | 1 | ||
Uneducated | 571 (86.1) | 92 (13.9) | 1.3 (0.67, 2.70) | 0.391 | 0.9 (0.40, 1.84) | 0.706 |
Household income per month (NPR) | ||||||
<24,000 | 193 (86.5) | 30 (13.5) | 1 | 1 | ||
≥24,000 | 440 (86.7) | 67 (13.3) | 1.0 (0.65, 1.67) | 0.938 | 1.0 (0.67, 1.72) | 0.768 |
Vegetarian diet | ||||||
Yes | 27 (77.0) | 8 (23.0) | 1 | 1 | ||
No | 628 (87.1) | 93 (12.9) | 0.5 (0.22, 1.15) | 0.103 | 0.5 (0.22, 1.16) | 0.108 |
Instant noodle intake | ||||||
No (<2 times per week) | 453 (89.5) | 53 (10.5) | 1 | |||
Yes (≥2 times per week) | 202 (80.5) | 49 (19.5) | 2.1 (1.36, 3.16) | 0.001 | 2.1 (1.37, 3.21) | 0.001 |
Milk intake | ||||||
Yes (≥2 times per week) | 236 (81.6) | 53 (18.4) | 1 | 1 | ||
No (<2 times per week) | 419 (89.5) | 49 (10.5) | 0.5 (0.34, 0.79) | 0.002 | 0.5 (0.32, 0.76) | 0.001 |
Current smoker | ||||||
No | 485 (86.8) | 74 (13.2) | 1 | 1 | ||
Yes | 170 (85.9) | 28 (14.1) | 1.1 (0.68, 1.72) | 0.749 | 1.0 (0.59, 1.54) | 0.860 |
Waist circumference | ||||||
<80 cm | 371 (87.5) | 53 (12.5) | 1 | 1 | ||
≥80 cm | 163 (82.7) | 34 (17.3) | 1.4 (0.91, 2.33) | 0.113 | 1.4 (0.92, 2.37) | 0.105 |
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Yogal, C.; Shakya, S.; Karmarcharya, B.; Koju, R.; Stunes, A.K.; Mosti, M.P.; Gustafsson, M.K.; Åsvold, B.O.; Schei, B.; Syversen, U. Diabetes Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors among Women in a Rural District of Nepal Using HbA1c as a Diagnostic Tool: A Population-Based Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7011. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127011
Yogal C, Shakya S, Karmarcharya B, Koju R, Stunes AK, Mosti MP, Gustafsson MK, Åsvold BO, Schei B, Syversen U. Diabetes Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors among Women in a Rural District of Nepal Using HbA1c as a Diagnostic Tool: A Population-Based Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(12):7011. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127011
Chicago/Turabian StyleYogal, Chandra, Sunila Shakya, Biraj Karmarcharya, Rajendra Koju, Astrid Kamilla Stunes, Mats Peder Mosti, Miriam K. Gustafsson, Bjørn Olav Åsvold, Berit Schei, and Unni Syversen. 2022. "Diabetes Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors among Women in a Rural District of Nepal Using HbA1c as a Diagnostic Tool: A Population-Based Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 12: 7011. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127011