Association between Bar Closing Time, Alcohol Use Disorders and Blood Alcohol Concentration: A Cross-Sectional Observational Study of Nightlife-Goers in Perth, Australia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Street Intercept Surveys
2.2. Survey Data
2.3. Statistical Analysis
2.4. Ethics
3. Results
3.1. AUDIT-C Score and BAC by Preferred Bar Type
3.2. AUDIT-C Score and Preferred Bar Type on BAC
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Male | Female | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Standard | Late | Total | Standard | Late | Total | |||||||||
Participant Characteristics | n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | ||
BAC (g/100 mL) | χ2(2) = 0.6, p = 0.75 | χ2(2) = 3.3, p = 0.19 | ||||||||||||
0–0.049 | 68 | 35 | 89 | 36 | 157 | 35 | 41 | 50 | 47 | 37 | 88 | 42 | ||
0.05–0.079 (female) | - | - | - | - | - | - | 15 | 18 | 28 | 22 | 43 | 21 | ||
≥0.08 (female) | - | - | - | - | - | - | 26 | 32 | 51 | 40 | 77 | 37 | ||
0.05–0.099 (male) | 59 | 30 | 82 | 33 | 141 | 32 | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
≥0.1 (male) | 67 | 35 | 78 | 31 | 145 | 33 | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Total | 194 | 100 | 249 | 100 | 443 | 100 | 82 | 100 | 126 | 100 | 208 | 100 | ||
AUDIT-C score | χ2(2) = 1.2, p = 0.54 | χ2(1) = 5.7, p = 0.02 | ||||||||||||
1–4 lower risk | 27 | 19 | 27 | 16 | 54 | 17 | 29 | 46 | 23 | 27 | 52 | 35 | ||
5–12 hazardous/active AUD (f) | - | - | - | - | - | - | 34 | 54 | 62 | 73 | 96 | 65 | ||
5–7 hazardous (m) | 58 | 41 | 67 | 39 | 125 | 40 | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
8–12 active AUD (m) | 55 | 39 | 77 | 45 | 132 | 42 | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Total | 140 | 100 | 171 | 100 | 311 | 100 | 63 | 100 | 85 | 100 | 148 | 100 | ||
Age | χ2(3) = 7.0, p = 0.07 | χ2(3) = 8.2, p = 0.04 | ||||||||||||
18–21 | 24 | 12 | 46 | 18 | 70 | 15 | 19 | 22 | 39 | 31 | 58 | 27 | ||
22–25 | 48 | 24 | 73 | 29 | 121 | 27 | 25 | 29 | 41 | 32 | 66 | 31 | ||
26–29 | 59 | 29 | 56 | 22 | 115 | 25 | 24 | 28 | 16 | 13 | 40 | 19 | ||
≥30 | 70 | 35 | 76 | 30 | 146 | 32 | 18 | 21 | 31 | 24 | 49 | 23 | ||
Total | 201 | 100 | 251 | 100 | 452 | 100 | 86 | 100 | 127 | 100 | 213 | 100 | ||
Occupation | χ2(4) = 8.4, p = 0.08 | χ2(4) = 3.9, p = 0.42 | ||||||||||||
Manager/professional | 65 | 33 | 88 | 36 | 153 | 35 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 7 | 14 | 7 | ||
Technician/trade/labourer | 15 | 8 | 18 | 7 | 33 | 7 | 12 | 14 | 25 | 20 | 37 | 18 | ||
Community/personal service | 7 | 4 | 24 | 10 | 31 | 7 | 22 | 26 | 28 | 23 | 50 | 24 | ||
Clerical/administrative/sales | 33 | 17 | 31 | 13 | 64 | 15 | 17 | 20 | 33 | 27 | 50 | 24 | ||
Other | 77 | 39 | 83 | 34 | 160 | 36 | 28 | 33 | 29 | 24 | 57 | 27 | ||
Total | 197 | 100 | 244 | 100 | 441 | 100 | 85 | 100 | 123 | 100 | 208 | 100 | ||
Pre-drinking | χ2(1) = 3.8, p = 0.05 | χ2(1) = 8.8, p < 0.01 | ||||||||||||
No | 108 | 53 | 110 | 44 | 218 | 48 | 53 | 62 | 52 | 41 | 105 | 49 | ||
Yes | 95 | 47 | 140 | 56 | 235 | 52 | 33 | 38 | 75 | 59 | 108 | 51 | ||
Total | 203 | 100 | 250 | 100 | 453 | 100 | 86 | 100 | 127 | 100 | 213 | 100 | ||
Energy drink use | χ2(1) = 8.3, p < 0.01 | χ2(1) = 1.4, p = 0.24 | ||||||||||||
No | 185 | 91 | 205 | 82 | 390 | 86 | 79 | 92 | 110 | 87 | 189 | 89 | ||
Yes | 18 | 9 | 46 | 18 | 64 | 14 | 7 | 8 | 17 | 13 | 24 | 11 | ||
Total | 203 | 100 | 251 | 100 | 454 | 100 | 86 | 100 | 127 | 100 | 213 | 100 | ||
Typical night out? ± | χ2(2) = 2.0, p = 0.37 | χ2(2) = 2.9, p = 0.24 | ||||||||||||
No, usually smaller | 32 | 25 | 44 | 33 | 76 | 29 | 16 | 27 | 20 | 25 | 36 | 26 | ||
No, usually bigger | 27 | 21 | 28 | 21 | 55 | 21 | 16 | 27 | 13 | 16 | 29 | 21 | ||
Yes | 68 | 54 | 62 | 46 | 130 | 50 | 27 | 46 | 46 | 58 | 73 | 53 | ||
Total | 127 | 100 | 134 | 100 | 261 | 100 | 59 | 100 | 79 | 100 | 138 | 100 | ||
Session duration (Hours) | n | Mean (SD) | n | Mean (SD) | n | Mean (SD) | n | Mean (SD) | n | Mean (SD) | n | Mean (SD) | ||
198 | 5.05 (2.52) | 246 | 4.81 (2.73) | 444 | 4.92 (2.64) | F(1, 442) = 0.9, p = 0.35 | 86 | 4.41 (2.02) | 126 | 4.52 (2.27) | 212 | 4.47 (2.17) | F(1, 210) = 0.1, p = 0.74 | |
Survey characteristics | n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | ||
Day | χ2(2) = 21.0, p < 0.001 | χ2(2) = 10.1, p < 0.01 | ||||||||||||
Friday | 48 | 24 | 108 | 43 | 156 | 34 | 19 | 22 | 52 | 41 | 71 | 33 | ||
Saturday | 118 | 58 | 119 | 47 | 237 | 52 | 62 | 72 | 64 | 50 | 126 | 59 | ||
Sunday | 37 | 18 | 24 | 10 | 61 | 13 | 5 | 6 | 11 | 9 | 16 | 8 | ||
Total | 203 | 100 | 251 | 100 | 454 | 100 | 86 | 100 | 127 | 100 | 213 | 100 | ||
Time | χ2(1) = 10.9, p < 0.001 | χ2(1) = 3.6, p = 0.06 | ||||||||||||
Before midnight | 134 | 66 | 127 | 51 | 261 | 57 | 52 | 60 | 60 | 47 | 112 | 53 | ||
Midnight and after | 69 | 34 | 124 | 49 | 193 | 43 | 34 | 40 | 67 | 53 | 101 | 47 | ||
Total | 203 | 100 | 251 | 100 | 454 | 100 | 86 | 100 | 127 | 100 | 213 | 100 |
Variables ± | Male | Female | ||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BAC 0.05–0.099 g/100 mL | BAC ≥ 0.1 g/100 mL | BAC 0.05–0.079 g/100 mL | BAC ≥ 0.08 g/100 mL | |||||||||||||||||
n | RR | LCI | UCI | p-Value | n | RR | LCI | UCI | p-value | n | RR | LCI | UCI | p-Value | n | RR | LCI | UCI | p-Value | |
Standard closing time models | Likelihood ratio χ2(6) = 26.8, p < 0.001 | Likelihood ratio χ2(6) = 13.6, p = 0.04 | ||||||||||||||||||
AUDIT-C score | ||||||||||||||||||||
1–4 lower risk [Ref] | 10 | 2 | 5 | 3 | ||||||||||||||||
5–12 haz/active AUD (f) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 5 | 2.06 | 0.41 | 10.33 | 0.38 | 11 | 6.18 | 1.35 | 28.21 | 0.02 |
5–7 hazardous (m) | 19 | 1.17 | 0.40 | 3.41 | 0.77 | 17 | 5.07 | 0.95 | 27.05 | 0.06 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
8–12 active AUD (m) | 13 | 1.35 | 0.42 | 4.36 | 0.61 | 26 | 13.42 | 2.47 | 72.97 | <0.01 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Typical night out? | ||||||||||||||||||||
No, usually smaller | 6 | 9.25 | 1.33 | 64.32 | 0.02 | 3 | 1.33 | 0.22 | 8.09 | 0.76 | ||||||||||
No, usually bigger | 2 | 1.47 | 0.17 | 12.64 | 0.72 | 3 | 0.52 | 0.10 | 2.75 | 0.44 | ||||||||||
Yes | 3 | 8 | ||||||||||||||||||
Session duration | 42 | 1.24 | 1.00 | 1.54 | 0.053 | 45 | 1.41 | 1.13 | 1.76 | <0.01 | ||||||||||
Late closing time models | Likelihood ratio χ2(14) = 43.0, p < 0.001 | Likelihood ratio χ2(12) = 38.1, p < 0.001 | ||||||||||||||||||
AUDIT-C score | ||||||||||||||||||||
1–4 lower risk [Ref] | 5 | 5 | 6 | 3 | ||||||||||||||||
5–12 haz/active AUD (f) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 17 | 3.22 | 0.79 | 13.12 | 0.10 | 24 | 21.89 | 3.50 | 137.10 | <0.001 |
5–7 hazardous (m) | 24 | 0.93 | 0.21 | 4.12 | 0.93 | 13 | 1.06 | 0.24 | 4.76 | 0.94 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
8–12 active AUD (m) | 18 | 2.10 | 0.50 | 8.81 | 0.31 | 19 | 1.07 | 0.24 | 4.87 | 0.93 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Age | ||||||||||||||||||||
18–21 | 9 | 0.56 | 0.09 | 3.61 | 0.54 | 4 | 0.03 | 0.003 | 0.29 | <0.01 | ||||||||||
22–25 | 7 | 0.25 | 0.04 | 1.46 | 0.12 | 10 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.48 | <0.01 | ||||||||||
26–29 | 1 | 0.32 | 0.02 | 5.36 | 0.43 | 3 | 0.36 | 0.03 | 4.54 | 0.43 | ||||||||||
≥30 [Ref] | 6 | 10 | ||||||||||||||||||
Pre-drinking | ||||||||||||||||||||
No | 11 | 0.16 | 0.06 | 0.46 | <0.001 | 14 | 0.39 | 0.13 | 1.13 | 0.08 | ||||||||||
Yes [Ref] | 36 | 23 | ||||||||||||||||||
Typical night out? | ||||||||||||||||||||
No, usually smaller | 17 | 2.14 | 0.67 | 6.90 | 0.20 | 17 | 3.92 | 1.16 | 13.22 | 0.03 | ||||||||||
No, usually bigger | 8 | 0.86 | 0.26 | 2.91 | 0.81 | 8 | 1.28 | 0.35 | 4.67 | 0.71 | ||||||||||
Yes | 22 | 12 | ||||||||||||||||||
Session duration | 47 | 1.17 | 0.89 | 1.54 | 0.26 | 37 | 1.50 | 1.14 | 1.98 | <0.01 | 23 | 1.48 | 1.04 | 2.10 | 0.03 | 27 | 1.64 | 1.12 | 2.38 | 0.01 |
Time | ||||||||||||||||||||
Before midnight [Ref] | 20 | 18 | 14 | 11 | ||||||||||||||||
Midnight and after | 27 | 3.07 | 1.15 | 8.23 | 0.03 | 19 | 1.86 | .65 | 5.31 | 0.24 | 9 | 1.21 | 0.32 | 4.50 | 0.78 | 16 | 7.26 | 1.58 | 33.31 | 0.01 |
Total models | Likelihood ratio χ2(8) = 55.6, p < 0.001 | Likelihood ratio χ2(18) = 51.0, p < 0.001 | ||||||||||||||||||
AUDIT-C score | ||||||||||||||||||||
1–4 lower risk [Ref] | 18 | 9 | 10 | 5 | ||||||||||||||||
5–12 haz/active AUD (f) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 21 | 3.26 | 1.09 | 9.73 | 0.03 | 32 | 9.75 | 2.78 | 34.21 | <0.001 |
5–7 hazardous (m) | 45 | 1.31 | 0.61 | 2.80 | 0.49 | 32 | 1.76 | 0.70 | 4.47 | 0.23 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
8–12 active AUD (m) | 36 | 1.12 | 0.50 | 2.54 | 0.78 | 58 | 3.31 | 1.30 | 8.42 | 0.01 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Occupation | ||||||||||||||||||||
Manager/professional | 1 | 0.25 | 0.02 | 3.97 | 0.33 | 3 | 0.47 | 0.05 | 4.87 | 0.53 | ||||||||||
Technician/trade/labourer | 8 | 0.32 | 0.06 | 1.67 | 0.18 | 7 | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.64 | 0.01 | ||||||||||
Community/personal service | 7 | 0.52 | 0.12 | 2.22 | 0.52 | 8 | 0.39 | 0.09 | 1.80 | 0.23 | ||||||||||
Clerical/administrative/sales | 6 | 0.13 | 0.03 | 0.62 | 0.13 | 6 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.37 | <0.01 | ||||||||||
Other [Ref] | 9 | 13 | ||||||||||||||||||
Pre-drinking | ||||||||||||||||||||
No | 38 | 0.40 | 0.22 | 0.73 | <0.01 | 39 | 0.52 | 0.28 | 0.97 | 0.04 | ||||||||||
Yes [Ref] | 61 | 60 | ||||||||||||||||||
Typical night out? | ||||||||||||||||||||
No, usually smaller | 11 | 3.71 | 1.05 | 13.04 | 0.04 | 10 | 2.23 | 0.56 | 8.85 | 0.25 | ||||||||||
No, usually bigger | 5 | 0.59 | 0.16 | 2.13 | 0.42 | 7 | 0.55 | 0.15 | 2.05 | 0.38 | ||||||||||
Yes | 15 | 20 | ||||||||||||||||||
Session duration | 99 | 1.21 | 1.04 | 1.40 | 0.01 | 99 | 1.43 | 1.23 | 1.67 | <0.001 | 31 | 1.21 | 0.90 | 1.61 | 0.21 | 37 | 1.50 | 1.10 | 2.03 | <0.01 |
Time | ||||||||||||||||||||
Before midnight [Ref] | 18 | 18 | ||||||||||||||||||
Midnight and after | 19 | 2.58 | 0.83 | 8.06 | 0.10 | 13 | 4.46 | 1.36 | 14.62 | 0.01 |
Variables ± | Male | Female | ||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BAC 0.05–0.099 g/100 mL | BAC ≥0.1 g/100 mL | BAC 0.05–0.079 g/100 mL | BAC ≥0.08 g/100 mL | |||||||||||||||||
n | RR | LCI | UCI | p-Value | n | RR | LCI | UCI | p-Value | n | RR | LCI | UCI | p-Value | n | RR | LCI | UCI | p-Value | |
AUDIT-C by preferred bar type | ||||||||||||||||||||
5–12 × Late (f) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 16 | 2.26 | 0.24 | 21.09 | 0.48 | 21 | 2.45 | 0.19 | 31.86 | 0.49 |
5–7 × Late (m) | 26 | 1.29 | 0.28 | 5.96 | 0.74 | 15 | 0.18 | 0.02 | 1.40 | 0.10 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
8–12 × Late (m) | 23 | 1.06 | 0.21 | 5.41 | 0.95 | 32 | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.96 | 0.046 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
AUDIT-C score | ||||||||||||||||||||
1–4 lower risk [Ref] | 18 | 9 | 10 | 5 | ||||||||||||||||
5–12 hazardous/active AUD (f) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 21 | 1.88 | 0.37 | 9.58 | 0.45 | 32 | 6.22 | 1.14 | 33.79 | 0.03 |
5–7 hazardous (m) | 45 | 1.15 | 0.39 | 3.38 | 0.80 | 32 | 5.09 | 0.94 | 27.68 | 0.06 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
8–12 active AUD (m) | 36 | 1.10 | 0.34 | 3.62 | 0.87 | 58 | 12.05 | 2.16 | 67.28 | <0.01 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Preferred bar type | ||||||||||||||||||||
Standard [Ref] | 42 | 45 | 12 | 18 | ||||||||||||||||
Late | 57 | 0.92 | 0.26 | 3.28 | 0.90 | 54 | 5.52 | 0.88 | 34.73 | 0.07 | 23 | 1.50 | 0.28 | 7.94 | 0.63 | 27 | 0.81 | 0.09 | 7.04 | 0.85 |
Occupation | ||||||||||||||||||||
Manager/professional | 1 | 0.19 | 0.01 | 3.21 | 0.25 | 3 | 0.39 | 0.04 | 4.22 | 0.44 | ||||||||||
Technician/trade/labourer | 8 | 0.26 | 0.05 | 1.45 | 0.12 | 7 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.55 | <0.01 | ||||||||||
Community/personal service | 7 | 0.54 | 0.12 | 2.42 | 0.42 | 8 | 0.41 | 0.09 | 1.96 | 0.27 | ||||||||||
Clerical/administrative/sales | 6 | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.58 | <0.01 | 6 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.33 | <0.01 | ||||||||||
Other [Ref] | 9 | 13 | ||||||||||||||||||
Pre-drinking | ||||||||||||||||||||
No | 38 | 0.39 | 0.21 | 0.72 | <0.01 | 39 | 0.53 | 0.28 | 1.00 | 0.05 | ||||||||||
Yes [Ref] | 61 | 60 | ||||||||||||||||||
Typical night out? | ||||||||||||||||||||
No, usually smaller | 11 | 4.22 | 1.17 | 15.28 | 0.03 | 10 | 2.44 | 0.61 | 9.76 | 0.21 | ||||||||||
No, usually bigger | 5 | 0.64 | 0.17 | 2.35 | 0.50 | 7 | 0.57 | 0.15 | 2.13 | 0.40 | ||||||||||
Yes | 15 | 20 | ||||||||||||||||||
Session duration | 99 | 1.22 | 1.04 | 1.42 | 0.01 | 99 | 1.46 | 1.25 | 1.70 | <0.001 | 31 | 1.24 | 0.91 | 1.67 | 0.17 | 37 | 1.55 | 1.13 | 2.13 | <0.01 |
Time | ||||||||||||||||||||
Before midnight [Ref] | 18 | 18 | ||||||||||||||||||
Midnight and after | 19 | 2.57 | 0.81 | 8.16 | 0.11 | 13 | 4.62 | 1.39 | 15.32 | 0.01 |
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Gilmore, W.; Symons, M.; Liang, W.; Graham, K.; Kypri, K.; Miller, P.; Chikritzhs, T. Association between Bar Closing Time, Alcohol Use Disorders and Blood Alcohol Concentration: A Cross-Sectional Observational Study of Nightlife-Goers in Perth, Australia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7026. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127026
Gilmore W, Symons M, Liang W, Graham K, Kypri K, Miller P, Chikritzhs T. Association between Bar Closing Time, Alcohol Use Disorders and Blood Alcohol Concentration: A Cross-Sectional Observational Study of Nightlife-Goers in Perth, Australia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(12):7026. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127026
Chicago/Turabian StyleGilmore, William, Martyn Symons, Wenbin Liang, Kathryn Graham, Kypros Kypri, Peter Miller, and Tanya Chikritzhs. 2022. "Association between Bar Closing Time, Alcohol Use Disorders and Blood Alcohol Concentration: A Cross-Sectional Observational Study of Nightlife-Goers in Perth, Australia" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 12: 7026. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127026