Information Communication Technology and Infant Mortality in Low-Income Countries: Empirical Study Using Panel Data Models
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Literature on the Effects of ICT on Health Outcomes
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Data Source, Data Processing, and Data Imputing
3.1.1. Data Source
3.1.2. Data Processing
3.1.3. Predictive Mean Matching (PMM)
3.2. Empirical Tests
3.3. Model Construction
- Ensure stationarity through the tests of 1st-generation panel unit-root;
- Test for pool-ability to utilize the POLS and, later, the PCCE;
- First step: Apply the POLS analysis and fixed effects to get their estimates results;
- Compare through F-test of individual effects to decide which estimates better depict our data and model;
- Second step: Apply random-effects analysis to obtain its estimates results;
- Compare RE with FE to decide which estimates depict better our model;
- Test for cross-sectional dependence through the results of the estimate of RE and FE;
- Apply appropriate techniques to remedy the presence of cross-sectional dependence;
- Add additional analyses to compare the final model estimates (robustness);
- To avoid redundancy and length, we only report the adequate results.
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Statistics
4.2. Fixed Effects FE Results
4.3. Two-Way FE Using Driscoll–Kraay Robust Errors with IV Estimation Results
4.4. Panel Common Correlated Effects PCCE Estimation Results
4.5. System-GMM Results
5. Discussion
5.1. INFM
5.2. CMU5
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Variable | Description | Source | Related Works | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Health outcome dependent variables | ||||
INFM | Mortality rate, infant (per 1000 live births) | World Bank Database | [2,3,52] | Included |
CMU5 | Mortality rate, under 5 (per 1000 live births) | World Bank Database | [52] | Included |
LEB | life expectancy at birth, total (years) | World Bank Database | [3,52] | Excluded |
HIV | Prevalence of HIV. The percentage of people ages 15–49 who are infected with HIV | World Bank Database | [52] | Excluded |
TBS | Incidences of tuberculosis, per 10,000 people. | World Bank Database | [52] | Excluded |
ICT independent variables | ||||
IU | Individuals using the Internet (% of the population) | International Telecommunications Union (ITU) | [2,3,52] | Included |
FTS | Fixed telephone subscriptions (per 100 people) | ITU | [2,3,52] | Included |
MCS | Mobile cellular subscriptions (per 100 people) | ITU | [2,3,52] | Included |
FBS | fixed-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | ITU | [2] | Excluded |
SIS | Secure servers are servers used per 1 million populations | ITU | [2] | Excluded |
Economic Factors | ||||
GDP | GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 inter ratio in USD) | World Bank Database | [3,52] | Included |
PHY | physicians (per 1000people) | World Bank Database | [3] | Excluded |
ADR | Age dependency ratio (% of working-age population) | World Bank Database | [52] | Excluded |
IM | Immunization, measles (% of children ages 12–23 months) | World Bank Database | [3,52] | Included |
IDPT | Immunization, DPT (% of children ages 12–23 months) | World Bank Database | [52] | Included |
HE | Domestic general government health expenditure per capita, PPP (current inter ratio in USD) | World Bank Database | [2,52] | Included |
Social Factors | ||||
SR | Sex ratio at birth (male births per female births) | World Bank Database | [3,52] | Excluded |
SCH | School enrollment, secondary (% gross) | World Bank Database | [3] | Included |
SCHF | Female pupils as a percentage of total pupils at primary level includeenrollments in public and private schools | World Bank Database | [2,52] | Included |
NETP | The net primary school enrolment rate (%). | World Bank Database | [52] | Excluded |
Environmental Factors | ||||
UP | Urban population (% of the total population) | World Bank Database | [2] | Included |
SNT | People using at least basic drinking water services; taken as the percentage of total population | World Bank Database | [2,52] | Excluded |
WATR | The percentage of the population with access to an improved water source. | World Bank Database | [52] | Excluded |
CO2E | CO2 emissions (metric tons per capita) | World Bank Database | [3] | Included |
Instrumental Variables | ||||
CCSEB | Communications, computer, etc. (% of service exports, BoP) | World Bank Database | Included | |
ICTSEBCUS | ICT service exports (BoP, current USD) | World Bank Database | Excluded | |
ICTSESEB | ICT service exports (% of service exports, BoP) | World Bank Database | Excluded | |
ICTGETGI | ICT goods imports (% total goods imports) | World Bank Database | Excluded | |
ICTGETGE | ICT goods exports (% of total goods exports) | World Bank Database | Excluded | |
CCSIB | Communications, computer, etc. (% of service imports, BoP) | World Bank Database | Excluded | |
CCOSCSI | Computer, communications, and other services (% of commercial service imports) | World Bank Database | Excluded | |
CCOSCSE | Computer, communications, and other services (% of commercial service exports) | World Bank Database | Excluded | |
ICC | Dummy variable of the first year a country issued an internet country code | Author’ own calculation | Included |
Appendix A.1. Empirical Tests
Symbol | Second-Generation Panel Unit-Root Test | First-Generation Panel Unit-Root Test | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CIPS d | CAFD d | CIPS t | CAFD t | LLC | IPS | |
INFM | −2.5506 * | −5.46 * | −2.159 * | −2.195 * | −27.47 * | −54.70 * |
CMU5 | −2.55 * | −4.899 * | −2.747 * | −2.388 * | −34.31 * | −74.71 * |
IU | −2.478 * | 0.225 | −3.475 * | −2.649 * | −6.103 * | −0.749 |
FTS | −1.6 * | 0.48 | −1.886 * | 2.172 * | −5.01 * | −0.627 |
MCS | −3.732 * | −8.144 * | −4.002 * | 3.614 * | −23.233 * | −17.663 * |
GDP | −2.487 * | −1.587 * | −2.731 * | 2.29 * | −4.717 * | −1.097 |
SCH | −2.592 * | −3.943 * | −2.744 * | −2.98 * | −6.797 * | −4.754 * |
IM | −2.571 * | −3.902 * | −2.608 * | −1.873 * | −6.758 * | −5.357 * |
IDPT | −2.268 * | −5.042 * | −2.702 * | −3.116 * | −13.213 * | −9.030 * |
HE | −2.138 * | −3.262 * | −2.406 * | 2.278 * | −5.633 * | −2.265 * |
ADR | −0.497 | 4.937 | −0.677 | 5.694 * | 3.023 | 15.379 |
SR | −2.895 * | −8.99 * | −3.213 * | −8.27 * | −3.9749 * | −10.594 * |
UP | −1.017 | 5.255 | −2.343 * | −1.728 * | −24.437 * | −5.148 * |
CO2E | −1.911 * | −1.293 | −2.05 * | 1.455 | 0.777 | −1.748 * |
Appendix B
Appendix B.1. Results
CMU5 | INFM | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | |
lnIU | −0.185 *** | −0.142 *** | ||||
0.019 | 0.015 | |||||
lnFTS | 0.003 | 0.001 | ||||
0.013 | 0.010 | |||||
lnMCS | −0.059 *** | −0.052 *** | ||||
0.011 | 0.009 | |||||
lnGDP | 0.064 ** | −0.286 *** | −0.124 *** | 0.042 ** | −0.226 *** | −0.084 *** |
0.029 | 0.059 | 0.036 | 0.020 | 0.050 | 0.031 | |
lnSCH | 0.005 | −0.139 ** | −0.069 | 0.040 | −0.071 ** | −0.008 |
0.081 | 0.065 | 0.070 | 0.047 | 0.031 | 0.037 | |
lnIM | 0.051 | 0.197 *** | 0.191 *** | 0.044 | 0.157 *** | 0.151 *** |
0.092 | 0.041 | 0.040 | 0.081 | 0.031 | 0.028 | |
lnIDPT | −0.053 | −0.237 *** | −0.197 *** | −0.039 | −0.180 *** | −0.144 *** |
0.062 | 0.064 | 0.058 | 0.050 | 0.047 | 0.039 | |
lnHE | 0.031 | −0.142 *** | −0.089 ** | −0.005 | −0.138 *** | −0.091 ** |
0.064 | 0.044 | 0.044 | 0.050 | 0.036 | 0.037 | |
lnADR | −0.330 | 0.075 | 0.034 | −0.076 | 0.235 * | 0.198 * |
0.111 | 0.154 | 0.139 | 0.087 | 0.125 | 0.111 | |
lnSR | −19.152 *** | −25.727 *** | −26.321 *** | −15.777 *** | −20.850 *** | −21.333 *** |
4.916 | 6.082 | 5.044 | 3.742 | 4.589 | 3.659 | |
lnUP | 0.034 | −0.148 ** | −0.100 ** | 0.040 | −0.100 * | −0.057 |
0.065 | 0.068 | 0.050 | 0.047 | 0.058 | 0.040 | |
lnCO2E | −0.003 | 0.064 *** | 0.050 *** | −0.004 | 0.048 *** | 0.035 *** |
0.027 | 0.010 | 0.013 | 0.020 | 0.007 | 0.009 | |
Total Sum of Squares: | 30.251 | 30.251 | 30.251 | 20.507 | 20.507 | 20.507 |
Residual Sum of Squares: | 8.796 | 6.619 | 5.526 | 4.905 | 4.008 | 3.154 |
R-Squared: | 0.741 | 0.781 | 0.817 | 0.782 | 0.804 | 0.846 |
Adj. R-Squared: | 0.720 | 0.763 | 0.802 | 0.765 | 0.788 | 0.833 |
Chi-Squared on 10 DF: | 1277.240 | 1602.840 | 2008.710 | 1585.210 | 1847.810 | 2469.560 |
CMU5 | INFM | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | |
lnIU | −0.019 ** | −0.016 *** | ||||
0.008 | 0.005 | |||||
lnFTS | −0.007 | −0.006 | ||||
0.010 | 0.007 | |||||
lnMCS | −0.028 *** | −0.023 *** | ||||
0.006 | 0.006 | |||||
lnGDP | −0.107 *** | −0.115 ** | −0.092 ** | −0.071 ** | −0.078 * | −0.058 * |
0.032 | 0.046 | 0.040 | 0.029 | 0.040 | 0.034 | |
lnSCH | −0.047 | −0.050 | −0.037 | 0.009 | 0.006 | 0.017 |
0.071 | 0.071 | 0.071 | 0.038 | 0.037 | 0.037 | |
lnIM | 0.196 *** | 0.221 *** | 0.193 *** | 0.165 *** | 0.185 *** | 0.162 *** |
0.045 | 0.039 | 0.029 | 0.045 | 0.040 | 0.031 | |
lnIDPT | −0.216 *** | −0.234 *** | −0.213 *** | −0.165 *** | −0.180 *** | −0.162 *** |
0.042 | 0.044 | 0.042 | 0.027 | 0.026 | 0.024 | |
lnHE | −0.073 | −0.083 | −0.075 | −0.078 * | −0.087 ** | −0.08 ** |
0.052 | 0.051 | 0.049 | 0.041 | 0.041 | 0.039 | |
lnADR | −0.040 | −0.009 | −0.013 | 0.141 | 0.166 | 0.163 |
0.127 | 0.128 | 0.135 | 0.098 | 0.101 | 0.107 | |
lnSR | −19.205 *** | −19.364 *** | −20.299 *** | −15.534 *** | −15.671 *** | −16.456 *** |
5.023 | 4.864 | 4.570 | 3.776 | 3.683 | 3.462 | |
lnUP | −0.023 | −0.027 | −0.034 | 0.008 | 0.005 | −0.001 |
0.030 | 0.034 | 0.030 | 0.023 | 0.027 | 0.023 | |
lnCO2E | −0.002 | −0.003 | −0.004 | −0.004 | −0.005 | −0.005 |
0.009 | 0.008 | 0.006 | 0.007 | 0.005 | 0.004 | |
Total Sum of Squares: | 5.733 | 5.733 | 5.733 | 3.438 | 3.438 | 3.438 |
Residual Sum of Squares: | 4.100 | 4.148 | 4.065 | 2.316 | 2.349 | 2.290 |
R-Squared: | 0.284 | 0.276 | 0.290 | 0.326 | 0.316 | 0.333 |
Adj. R-Squared: | 0.197 | 0.187 | 0.203 | 0.243 | 0.232 | 0.252 |
F-statistic on 10 and 432 DF: | 17.209 | 16.499 | 17.723 | 20.913 | 20.029 | 21.654 |
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Symbol | Descriptive Statistic | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
mean | SD | min | max | Median | |
Dependent Variables | |||||
INFM | 67.14 | 24.502 | 13.80 | 142.40 | 66.25 |
CMU5 | 104.12 | 44.740 | 16.10 | 234.00 | 101.05 |
Independent Variables | |||||
IU | 4.561 | 6.519 | 0.004 | 34.253 | 1.549 |
FTS | 1.528 | 3.307 | 0.005 | 22.620 | 0.504 |
MCS | 28.685 | 29.752 | 0.018 | 138.80 | 20.008 |
Control Variables | |||||
GDP | 546.1 | 330.13 | 111.9 | 2032.6 | 467.7 |
SCH | 93.17 | 29.436 | 16.63 | 156.03 | 92.38 |
IM | 69.38 | 18.056 | 16.00 | 99.00 | 70.00 |
IDPT | 70.31 | 19.570 | 19.00 | 99.00 | 74.00 |
HE | 30.242 | 19.067 | 4.691 | 139.75 | 24.814 |
ADR | 90.09 | 11.710 | 56.61 | 111.94 | 91.06 |
SR | 1.038 | 0.014 | 1.010 | 1.071 | 1.030 |
UP | 29.744 | 11.374 | 8.246 | 55.60 | 29.909 |
CO2E | 0.246 | 0.497 | 0.017 | 3.343 | 0.0947 |
Instrumental Variables | |||||
ICC | 0.277 | 0.448 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.000 |
CCSEB | 6.988 | 6.408 | 0.144 | 42.219 | 5.631 |
lnCMU5 | lnINFM | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ztilde | Zbar | Wbar | Ztilde | Zbar | Wbar | |
lnIU | 8.703 *** | 12.19 *** | 4.317 *** | 8.273 *** | 11.618 *** | 4.162 *** |
lnFTS | 12.489 *** | 17.225 *** | 5.688 *** | 13.606 *** | 18.711 *** | 6.092 *** |
lnMCS | 39.138 *** | 52.674 *** | 15.336 *** | 35.051 *** | 47.237 *** | 13.856 *** |
INFM | CMU5 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | |
lnIU | −0.070 *** | −0.040 *** | −0.059 *** | −0.051 *** | ||||
0.016 | (0.012) | 0.011 | (0.018) | |||||
lnFTS | 0.003 | 0.006 | 0.001 | 0.008 | ||||
0.013 | (0.009) | 0.010 | (0.013) | |||||
lnMCS | −0.059 *** | −0.030 *** | −0.052 *** | −0.031 *** | ||||
0.011 | (0.005) | 0.009 | (0.007) | |||||
lnGDP | −0.152 *** | −0.286 *** | −0.124 *** | −0.073 *** | −0.114 *** | −0.226 *** | −0.084 *** | −0.110 *** |
0.027 | 0.059 | 0.036 | (0.024) | 0.024 | 0.050 | 0.031 | (0.026) | |
lnSCH | −0.084 | −0.139 | −0.069 | −0.003 | −0.025 | −0.071** | −0.008 | −0.062 |
0.071 | 0.065 | 0.070 | (0.038) | 0.038 | 0.031 | 0.037 | (0.073) | |
lnIM | 0.142 *** | 0.197 *** | 0.191 *** | 0.120 *** | 0.110 ** | 0.157 *** | 0.151 *** | 0.151 *** |
0.047 | 0.041 | 0.040 | (0.036) | 0.046 | 0.031 | 0.028 | (0.037) | |
lnIDPT | −0.167 *** | −0.237 *** | −0.197 *** | −0.120 *** | −0.121 *** | −0.180 *** | −0.144 *** | −0.165 *** |
0.047 | 0.064 | 0.058 | (0.027) | 0.037 | 0.047 | 0.039 | (0.040) | |
lnHE | −0.076 | −0.142 *** | −0.089 ** | −0.071 | −0.083 ** | −0.138 *** | −0.091 ** | −0.064 |
0.052 | 0.044 | 0.044 | (0.044) | 0.041 | 0.036 | 0.037 | (0.055) | |
lnADR | −0.080 | 0.075 | 0.034 | 0.127 | 0.105 | 0.235 * | 0.198 * | −0.057 |
0.125 | 0.154 | 0.139 | (0.106) | 0.096 | 0.125 | 0.111 | (0.136) | |
lnSR | −23.289 *** | −25.727 *** | −26.321 *** | −19.500 *** | −18.768 *** | −20.850 *** | −21.333 *** | −23.955 *** |
5.412 | 6.082 | 5.044 | (3.190) | 4.057 | 4.589 | 3.659 | (4.291) | |
lnUP | −0.079 * | −0.148 ** | −0.100 ** | −0.033 | −0.042 | −0.100 * | −0.057 | −0.069 |
0.048 | 0.068 | 0.050 | (0.038) | 0.040 | 0.058 | 0.040 | (0.045) | |
lnCO2E | 0.039 ** | 0.064 *** | 0.050 *** | 0.025** | 0.026** | 0.048 *** | 0.035 *** | 0.037 ** |
0.015 | 0.010 | 0.013 | (0.010) | 0.011 | 0.007 | 0.009 | (0.015) | |
R2 | 0.850 | 0.805 | 0.846 | 0.859 | 0.825 | 0.781 | 0.817 | 0.832 |
Adj. R2 | 0.838 | 0.789 | 0.834 | 0.847 | 0.811 | 0.764 | 0.803 | 0.818 |
F-Stat | 254.624 *** | 184.781 *** | 246.956 *** | 227.488 *** | 211.733 *** | 211.733 *** | 211.733 *** | 184.226 *** |
Lagrange Multiplier Test (Breusch–Pagan) for balanced panels, X2 | ||||||||
1984.1 *** | 1846.2 *** | 1984.1 *** | 1930.7 *** | 1670.5 *** | 1603.2 *** | 1670.5 *** | 1665.3 *** | |
F test for individual effects | ||||||||
124.83 *** | 95.708 *** | 131.94 *** | 126.42 *** | 88.073 *** | 71.707 *** | 91.224 *** | 88.682 *** | |
Breusch–Pagan LM test for cross-sectional dependence in panels | ||||||||
1485.8 *** | 1333.9 *** | 1595.3 *** | 1609 *** | 1381.9 *** | 1287.7 *** | 1549.1 *** | 1565 *** | |
Pesaran CD test for cross-sectional dependence in panels | ||||||||
1572.8 *** | 1380.5 *** | 1661.4 *** | 7.690 *** | 1573.6 *** | 1363.9 *** | 1646.9 *** | 9.518 *** | |
Hausman Test | ||||||||
111.79 *** | 69.428 *** | 553.31 *** | 242.09 *** | 117.69 *** | 80.781 *** | 222.17 *** | 145 *** |
CMU5 | INFM | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | |
lnIU | −0.053 | −0.012 | −0.049 | −0.010 | ||||
0.047 | (0.010) | 0.042 | (0.006) | |||||
lnFTS | −0.007 | −0.005 | −0.006 | −0.004 | ||||
0.010 | (0.011) | 0.007 | (0.008) | |||||
lnMCS | −0.028 *** | −0.023 *** | −0.023 *** | −0.020 *** | ||||
0.006 | (0.007) | 0.006 | (0.006) | |||||
lnGDP | −0.083 * | −0.115 ** | −0.092 ** | −0.083 ** | −0.048 | −0.078 * | −0.058 * | −0.051 |
0.045 | 0.046 | 0.040 | (0.039) | 0.036 | 0.040 | 0.034 | (0.034) | |
lnSCH | −0.042 | −0.050 | −0.037 | −0.038 | 0.013 | 0.006 | 0.017 | 0.016 |
0.075 | 0.071 | 0.071 | (0.072) | 0.041 | 0.037 | 0.037 | (0.037) | |
lnIM | 0.157 *** | 0.221 *** | 0.193 *** | 0.185 *** | 0.126 *** | 0.185 *** | 0.162 *** | 0.155 *** |
0.056 | 0.039 | 0.029 | (0.035) | 0.062 | 0.040 | 0.031 | (0.038) | |
lnIDPT | −0.185 *** | −0.234 *** | −0.213 *** | −0.205 *** | −0.135 *** | −0.180 *** | −0.162 *** | −0.156 *** |
0.034 | 0.044 | 0.042 | (0.038) | 0.028 | 0.026 | 0.024 | (0.023) | |
lnHE | −0.059 | −0.083 | −0.075 | −0.073 | −0.065 | −0.087 ** | −0.080 ** | −0.079 * |
0.051 | 0.051 | 0.049 | (0.055) | 0.044 | 0.041 | 0.039 | (0.044) | |
lnADR | −0.091 | −0.009 | −0.013 | −0.031 | 0.090 | 0.166 | 0.163 | 0.148 |
0.108 | 0.128 | 0.135 | (0.138) | 0.091 | 0.101 | 0.107 | (0.107) | |
lnSR | −19.318 *** | −19.364 *** | −20.299 *** | −20.315 *** | −15.645 *** | −15.671 *** | −16.456 *** | −16.478 *** |
4.973 | 4.864 | 4.570 | (4.343) | 3.768 | 3.683 | 3.462 | (3.341) | |
lnUP | −0.022 | −0.027 | −0.034 | −0.035 | 0.009 | 0.005 | −0.001 | −0.001 |
0.024 | 0.034 | 0.030 | (0.024) | 0.017 | 0.027 | 0.023 | (0.019) | |
lnCO2E | 0.000 | −0.003 | −0.004 | −0.002 | −0.002 | −0.005 | −0.005 | −0.004 |
0.015 | 0.008 | 0.006 | (0.008) | 0.012 | 0.005 | 0.004 | (0.006) | |
R-Squared: | 0.261 | 0.276 | 0.290 | 0.296 | 0.290 | 0.316 | 0.333 | 0.339 |
Adj. R-Squared: | 0.170 | 0.187 | 0.203 | 0.206 | 0.203 | 0.232 | 0.252 | 0.255 |
F-statistic on 10 and 432 DF | 160.452 | 164.994 | 177.230 | 15.039 | 190.025 | 200.290 | 216.549 | 18.387 |
CMU5 | INFM | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | |
lnIU | −0.003 *** | −0.001 | −0.002 *** | −0.001 | ||||
(0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | |||||
lnFTS | 0.000 | −0.011 ** | −0.002 | −0.006 ** | ||||
(0.002) | (0.004) | (0.003) | (0.002) | |||||
lnMCS | 0.000 | 0.002 *** | −0.001 | 0.000 | ||||
(0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | |||||
lnGDP | −0.001 | −0.009 | −0.004 | 0.005 | −0.006 ** | −0.012 * | −0.005 * | −0.005 |
(0.005) | (0.007) | (0.003) | (0.007) | (0.003) | (0.007) | (0.003) | (0.003) | |
lnSCH | 0.002 | −0.009 | −0.005 | −0.023 ** | −0.006 * | −0.031 ** | −0.009 ** | −0.012 * |
(0.004) | (0.006) | (0.004) | (0.009) | (0.003) | (0.012) | (0.004) | (0.006) | |
lnIM | 0.012 *** | 0.029 *** | −0.004 | −0.026 ** | 0.005 | 0.014 ** | −0.01 ** | −0.016 ** |
(0.004) | (0.01) | (0.008) | (0.013) | (0.003) | −0.006 | (0.004) | (0.008) | |
lnIDPT | −0.021 *** | −0.017 ** | 0.000 | 0.016 * | −0.013 *** | −0.010 | 0.006 * | 0.013 ** |
(0.005) | (0.009) | (0.007) | (0.01) | (0.003) | (0.009) | (0.003) | (0.006) | |
lnHE | −0.001 | −0.015 *** | 0.008 *** | 0.015 ** | 0.001 | −0.006 ** | 0.009 *** | 0.012 *** |
(0.004) | (0.004) | (0.003) | (0.006) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.001) | (0.004) | |
lnADR | 0.115 *** | 0.129 *** | −0.105 | −0.159 * | 0.033 | 0.071 ** | −0.159 *** | −0.169 *** |
(0.026) | (0.025) | (0.074) | (0.087) | (0.023) | (0.03) | (0.04) | (0.04) | |
lnSR | −0.141 | −0.120 | −0.007 | −2.665 ** | 0.051 | 0.068 | 0.227 | −0.888 |
(0.794) | (0.933) | (0.736) | (1.076) | (0.618) | (1.154) | (0.58) | (0.928) | |
lnUP | −0.069 | 0.125 | 0.075 ** | 0.118 ** | 0.025 | 0.203 *** | 0.136 *** | 0.185 *** |
(0.051) | (0.079) | (0.037) | (0.046) | (0.055) | (0.059) | (0.02) | (0.036) | |
lnCO2E | −0.009 *** | −0.007 *** | −0.009 *** | −0.009 *** | −0.004 *** | −0.006 *** | −0.005 *** | −0.005 *** |
(0.002) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.001) | |
Total Sum of Squares: | 131,245 | 131,245 | 131,245 | 131,245 | 90,734 | 90,734 | 90,734 | 90,734 |
Residual Sum of Squares: | 0.017 | 0.038 | 0.013 | 0.008 | 0.009 | 0.023 | 0.006 | 0.003 |
HPY R2: | 0.998 | 0.996 | 0.999 | 0.999 | 0.999 | 0.997 | 0.999 | 0.999 |
INFM | CMU5 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | |
IU | −0.093 *** | −0.105 *** | ||||
(0.026) | (0.030) | |||||
FTS | −0.051 | −0.046 | ||||
(0.033) | (0.037) | |||||
MCS | −0.036 | −0.040 | ||||
(0.024) | (0.027) | |||||
GDP | −0.170 * | −0.281 ** | −0.270 ** | −0.136 | −0.271 ** | −0.249 ** |
(0.091) | (0.124) | (0.109) | (0.102) | (0.134) | (0.117) | |
SCH | −0.132 | −0.167 | −0.181 * | −0.276 *** | −0.317 *** | −0.331 *** |
(0.097) | (0.102) | (0.095) | (0.102) | (0.104) | (0.100) | |
IM | −0.292 | −0.122 | −0.176 | −0.370 | −0.181 | −0.238 |
(0.319) | (0.314) | (0.321) | (0.342) | (0.342) | (0.347) | |
IDPT | 0.252 | 0.118 | 0.165 | 0.313 | 0.159 | 0.213 |
(0.316) | (0.327) | (0.330) | (0.332) | (0.352) | (0.349) | |
HE | 0.115 | −0.001 | 0.070 | 0.127 | 0.003 | 0.076 |
(0.084) | (0.105) | (0.101) | (0.091) | (0.112) | (0.111) | |
ADR | 1.176 *** | 1.104 *** | 1.176 *** | 1.172 *** | 1.468 *** | 1.382 *** |
(0.096) | (0.110) | (0.096) | (0.102) | (0.106) | (0.108) | |
SR | −2.547 | −3.824 * | −2.547 | −6.324 *** | −5.040 * | −6.285 *** |
(2.576) | (2.221) | (2.576) | (2.030) | (2.718) | (2.214) | |
UP | 0.395 *** | 0.388 *** | 0.431 *** | 0.333 *** | 0.334 *** | 0.374 *** |
(0.075) | (0.101) | (0.088) | (0.088) | (0.110) | (0.098) | |
CO2E | −0.136 ** | −0.054 | −0.114 ** | −0.155 ** | −0.070 | −0.130 ** |
(0.064) | (0.044) | (0.056) | (0.068) | (0.049) | (0.060) | |
Sargan test: chisq (162) = | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 |
p-value = | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Autocorrelation test (1): normal = | −1.230 | −0.615 | −0.957 | −1.595 | −1.168 | −1.405 |
p-value = | 0.219 | 0.538 | 0.338 | 0.111 | 0.243 | 0.160 |
Autocorrelation test (2): normal = | −0.432 | −0.187 | −0.410 | −0.693 | −0.361 | −0.529 |
p-value = | 0.665 | 0.852 | 0.682 | 0.489 | 0.718 | 0.597 |
Wald test for coefficients: chisq (10) = | 37,675.47 | 25,405.61 | 27,954.66 | 63,688.66 | 27,759.88 | 32,799.97 |
p-value = | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
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Khelfaoui, I.; Xie, Y.; Hafeez, M.; Ahmed, D.; Degha, H.E.; Meskher, H. Information Communication Technology and Infant Mortality in Low-Income Countries: Empirical Study Using Panel Data Models. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7338. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127338
Khelfaoui I, Xie Y, Hafeez M, Ahmed D, Degha HE, Meskher H. Information Communication Technology and Infant Mortality in Low-Income Countries: Empirical Study Using Panel Data Models. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(12):7338. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127338
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhelfaoui, Issam, Yuantao Xie, Muhammad Hafeez, Danish Ahmed, Houssem Eddine Degha, and Hicham Meskher. 2022. "Information Communication Technology and Infant Mortality in Low-Income Countries: Empirical Study Using Panel Data Models" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 12: 7338. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127338