Diabetic and Hypertensive Disorders Following Miscarriage: A Protocol for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by
, , and
Damien Foo
1, 
Jennifer Dunne
1,
Gavin Pereira
1,2,3
,
Amanuel Gebremedhin
1,
Bereket Duko
1
and
Gizachew A. Tessema
1,*
1
Curtin School of Population Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6101, Australia
2
enAble Institute, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6101, Australia
3
Centre for Fertility and Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, 0473 Oslo, Norway
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(14), 8324; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148324
Submission received: 13 June 2022
/
Revised: 4 July 2022
/
Accepted: 6 July 2022
/
Published: 7 July 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Health Behavior, Chronic Disease and Health Promotion)
Abstract
:(1) Background: Miscarriages occur in approximately 15–25% of all pregnancies. There is limited evidence suggesting an association between history of miscarriage and the development of diabetic and hypertensive disorders in women. This systematic review aims to collate the existing literature and provide up to date epidemiological evidence on the topic. (2) Methods: We will search CINAHL Plus, Ovid/EMBASE, Ovid/MEDLINE, ProQuest, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, using a combination of medical subject headings, keywords, and search terms, for relevant articles related to the association between miscarriage and the risk of diabetic and hypertensive disorders. Cross-sectional, case–control, nested case–control, case–cohort, and cohort studies published from inception to April 2022 will be included in the search strategy. Three reviewers will independently screen studies and the risk of bias will be assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal tool. Where the data permit, a meta-analysis will be conducted. (3) Results: The results of this systematic review will be submitted to a peer-reviewed journal for publication. (4) Conclusions: The findings of this systematic review will instigate efforts to manage and prevent reproductive, cardiovascular, and metabolic health consequences associated with miscarriages.
1. Introduction
Miscarriage, defined as the spontaneous loss of pregnancy prior to fetal viability, is the most common pregnancy complication that occurs in approximately 15–25% of all pregnancies, with an estimated 23 million miscarriages occurring worldwide each year [1,2,3,4]. Miscarriage typically occurs within the first 12 weeks of gestation [3]. The approach to defining miscarriage differs between low- and middle-income countries (i.e., pregnancy loss occurring < 28 weeks of gestation or birthweight < 1000 g) [5] and high-income countries (i.e., pregnancy loss occurring < 20–26 weeks of gestation or birthweight < 400–500 g) [3,6].
Miscarriage, particularly recurrent miscarriage, is a risk marker of future complications during pregnancy and birth, such as placental abruption, stillbirth, preterm birth, and fetal growth restriction [3], and it has also been suggested to be associated with the risk of cardiovascular disease [3]. Diabetes mellitus, hypertension and history of gestational diabetes, gestational hypertension, and pre-eclampsia have also been identified as risk factors of cardiovascular disease [7]. Miscarriage is not recognized as a cardiovascular risk factor in the recommended guidelines by the National Vascular Disease Prevention Alliance (Australia) and the American Heart Association, despite sharing common etiological origins with pre-eclampsia and other obstetric complications [8,9].
Cardiovascular disease shares many risk factors with diabetic and hypertensive disorders, such as type-2 diabetes and hypertension [10,11], and there is growing evidence supporting the association between miscarriage and cardiovascular risk. There has also been an increased interest in the potential impacts of miscarriage on the development of diabetic and hypertensive disorders in women. Recent studies have reported that history of miscarriage is associated with an increased risk of diabetes mellitus [10,11,12,13,14], hypertension [11,12], and gestational diabetes [15,16]. However, these associations are yet to be confirmed. It has been proposed that the biological mechanism for the increased cardiovascular and metabolic risk could be due to oxidative stress and inflammation [15,17,18], which could also contribute to other health outcomes, such as gestational diabetes [15]. An alternative hypothesis may be that exposure to miscarriage could initiate an immunological cascade that could lead to the subsequent development of diabetic and hypertensive disorders, such as type-2 diabetes [13]. However, this association is yet to be confirmed.
The aim of this systematic review will be to systematically search, synthesize, and critically review the current observational evidence for the effect of history of miscarriage on pregnancy- and non-pregnancy-related diabetic and hypertensive disorders in women. The evidence obtained from this review is important to inform families and clinicians regarding reproductive, cardiovascular, and metabolic health, particularly in relation to miscarriage.
2. Materials and Methods
This study protocol followed the recommendations by the Preferred Reporting for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) [19] and has been registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (CRD42022327689).
2.1. Study Characteristics
2.1.1. Population
This systematic review will include women with information on their history of miscarriage and with no prior diabetic or hypertensive co-morbidities before pregnancy. We will not apply any restrictions on studies based on geographic setting and date of publication.
2.1.2. Study Design
This systematic review will include all retrospective or prospective observational studies, including cross-sectional, case–control, nested case–control, case–cohort, and cohort studies, which have evaluated the association between the exposure and outcome(s) of interest.
2.1.3. Exposure
The exposure of interest is history of miscarriage. History of miscarriage is defined as the occurrence of one or more miscarriages from a prior pregnancy. We will investigate whether the number of miscarriages is associated with the outcomes.
2.1.4. Comparator/Control
We will include studies comparing women with a history of miscarriage to women with no history of miscarriage.
2.1.5. Outcomes
The outcomes of interest in this systematic review are diabetic disorders, including diabetes mellitus (i.e., type-1 or type-2) and gestational diabetes, and hypertensive disorders, including essential hypertension and gestational hypertension (e.g., eclampsia and pre-eclampsia).
2.2. Data Sources and Search Strategy
We will search for peer-reviewed literature in the following electronic databases: CINAHL Plus, Ovid/EMBASE, Ovid/MEDLINE, ProQuest, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, using a combination of medical subject headings, keywords, and search terms related to the exposure and outcomes (Table 1). We will also search Google Scholar for grey literature. The initial search strategy was developed for Ovid/MEDLINE and will be adapted to each electronic database (Supplemental Table S1). We will also search the reference list of the included studies for potentially relevant records not identified by the electronic search.
2.3. Eligibility Criteria
2.3.1. Inclusion Criteria
The identified studies need to satisfy the following four criteria to be eligible for inclusion: (1) population criterion includes women of reproductive age with no prior diabetic or hypertensive co-morbidities before pregnancy; (2) study design criterion includes all observational studies; (3) exposure criterion includes studies that investigated history of miscarriage as the primary exposure; and (4) outcome criterion includes studies that investigated at least one diabetic or hypertensive outcome.
2.3.2. Exclusion Criteria
Studies will be excluded based on the following five criteria: (1) non-primary studies including case reports and series, commentaries, editorials, letters to the editors or reviews without original data; (2) studies published in languages other than English; (3) studies that do not evaluate the association between history of miscarriage and at least one diabetic or hypertensive disorder; (4) studies with incomplete information on effect estimates (e.g., missing confidence intervals); and (5) studies that include women with prior diabetic or hypertensive co-morbidities before pregnancy.
2.4. Data Management
2.4.1. Study Selection
All unique records identified from the electronic databases will be imported into an Endnote library. In the first stage of the review, one reviewer will screen and review the titles and abstracts of all the identified records retrieved during the searches. A second reviewer will be randomly assigned 20% of the total number of records retrieved during the search and will review the titles and abstracts. In the second stage of the review, two independent reviewers will screen and review the full-texts of these potentially relevant records and decisions will be made regarding inclusion/exclusion. The reason for exclusion will be documented. Studies that are deemed to meet the inclusion criteria will be included in the final review. A third reviewer will resolve any conflicts throughout the review process. In accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) [20], the selection process will be presented in a flow diagram.
2.4.2. Data Extraction
Two independent reviewers will extract data, from the included studies, using a standardized data collection form, developed to extract information on study design, sample size, geographic location, participant demographics, definition and ascertainment of exposure and outcomes, effect sizes and confidence intervals, and response rate.
2.4.3. Data Synthesis and Analysis
The final review will include a narrative description of the data extracted from the included studies. The findings for each individual study will also be presented in a table. If the data permit and the study design, methodology, and exposure and outcomes are similar enough, we plan to perform a meta-analysis. The statistical heterogeneity between studies will be assessed using the I2 statistic [21]. If meta-analysis is not possible due to heterogeneity between the studies, individual effect estimates will be presented in a forest plot, with no attempt of estimating a pooled effect estimate.
2.4.4. Risk of Bias (Quality) Assessment
The quality of the included studies will be assessed by two independent reviewers. The Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal tool will be used to assess the quality of observational cross-sectional, case–control, nested case–control, case–cohort, and cohort studies [22].
2.5. Confidence in Cumulative Evidence
We will use the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment and Evaluations (GRADE) guidelines, developed by the GRADE Working Group, to assess the overall quality of the body of evidence for each outcome evaluated. The GRADE system classifies the quality of evidence into four levels, including very low (very little confidence in the effect estimate and the true effect is likely to be substantially different); low (limited confidence in the effect estimate and the true effect may be substantially different); moderate (moderate confidence in the effect estimate and the true effect is likely to be close to the effect estimate; however, it is possible that it is substantially different); and high (highly confident in the effect estimate and the true effect is close to the effect estimate).
2.6. Ethics and Dissemination
3. Results
The results of this systematic review will be published as a peer-reviewed article.
4. Discussion
There have been several etiological arguments that have been proposed to support a biological mechanistic pathway between miscarriage and cardiovascular risk. Recent evidence has suggested the association between miscarriage and diabetic and hypertensive disorders, which may suggest that the development of diabetic and/or hypertensive disorder may be involved in this biological mechanistic pathway.
Study Limitations
It is possible that the final conclusions of this systematic review may be incomplete due to the limited number of studies, as well as the limited number of participants included in the studies; therefore, it may not be possible to perform a formal meta-analysis. However, we will perform a narrative synthesis to collate and summarize the results. In addition, since there is no standard internationally-defined gestational (or birthweight) boundaries for miscarriage, final conclusions may be limited to how miscarriage was defined.
5. Conclusions
This systematic review aims to provide comprehensive evidence of the role of miscarriage on the future risk of diabetic and hypertensive disorders in women. The findings of this review may facilitate cardiometabolic screening programs that target women with a history of miscarriage for early screening.
Supplementary Materials
The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ijerph19148324/s1, Table S1: Search Strategy for Ovid/MEDLINE.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, G.P. and G.A.T.; methodology, D.F., G.P. and G.A.T.; validation, G.P. and G.A.T.; formal analysis, D.F.; investigation, D.F. and J.D.; data curation, D.F. and J.D.; writing—original draft preparation, D.F..; writing—review and editing, J.D., G.P., A.G., B.D. and G.A.T.; supervision, G.P. and G.A.T.; project administration, G.A.T.; funding acquisition, G.A.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
D.F. is supported with funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council (GNT1195716; PI: G.A.T.). G.P. is supported with funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council Project and Investigator Grants GNT1099655 and GNT1173991, institutional funding for the WA Health and Artificial Intelligence Consortium, the Health Effects Institute USA, and the Research Council of Norway through its Centre of Excellence funding scheme #262700. G.A.T. is supported with funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council Investigator Grant GNT1195716.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
- Gupta, S.; Agarwal, A.; Banerjee, J.; Alvarez, J.G. The Role of Oxidative Stress in Spontaneous Abortion and Recurrent Pregnancy Loss: A Systematic Review. Obstet. Gynecol. Surv. 2007, 62, 335–347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Sedgh, G.D.; Bearak, J.P.; Singh, S.P.; Bankole, A.P.; Popinchalk, A.M.P.H.; Ganatra, B.M.D.; Rossier, C.P.; Gerdts, C.P.; Tunçalp, Ö.M.D.; Johnson, B.R.P.; et al. Abortion incidence between 1990 and 2014: Global, regional, and subregional levels and trends. Lancet 2016, 388, 258–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Quenby, S.; Gallos, I.D.; Dhillon-Smith, R.K.; Podesek, M.; Stephenson, M.D.; Fisher, J.; Brosens, J.J.; Brewin, J.; Ramhorst, R.; Lucas, E.S.; et al. Miscarriage matters: The epidemiological, physical, psychological, and economic costs of early pregnancy loss. Lancet 2021, 397, 1658–1667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bhattacharya, S.; Townend, J.; Shetty, A.; Campbell, D.; Bhattacharya, S. Does miscarriage in an initial pregnancy lead to adverse obstetric and perinatal outcomes in the next continuing pregnancy? BJOG Int. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2008, 115, 1623–1629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- World Health Organization Why We Need to Talk About Losing a Baby. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/why-we-need-to-talk-about-losing-a-baby#:~:text=Miscarriage%20is%20the%20most%20common,who%20knew%20they%20were%20pregnant (accessed on 28 April 2022).
- Mohangoo, A.D.; Blondel, B.; Gissler, M.; Velebil, P.; Macfarlane, A.; Zeitlin, J.; Euro-Peristat Scientific, C. International comparisons of fetal and neonatal mortality rates in high-income countries: Should exclusion thresholds be based on birth weight or gestational age? PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e64869. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wu, P.; Haththotuwa, R.; Kwok, C.S.; Babu, A.; Kotronias, R.A.; Rushton, C.; Zaman, A.; Fryer, A.A.; Kadam, U.; Chew-Graham, C.A.; et al. Preeclampsia and Future Cardiovascular Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 2017, 10, e003497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Heart Foundation Absolute CVD Risk Clinical Guidelines. Available online: https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/conditions/fp-absolute-cvd-risk-clinical-guidelines (accessed on 28 April 2022).
- Arnett, D.K.; Blumenthal, R.S.; Albert, M.A.; Buroker, A.B.; Goldberger, Z.D.; Hahn, E.J.; Himmelfarb, C.D.; Khera, A.; Lloyd-Jones, D.; McEvoy, J.W.; et al. 2019 ACC/AHA Guideline on the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation 2019, 140, e596–e646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Peters, S.A.E.; Yang, L.; Guo, Y.; Chen, Y.; Bian, Z.; Sun, H.; Li, Y.; Li, L.; Woodward, M.; Chen, Z.; et al. Pregnancy, pregnancy loss and the risk of diabetes in Chinese women: Findings from the China Kadoorie Biobank. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 2020, 35, 295–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Horn, J.; Tanz, L.J.; Stuart, J.J.; Markovitz, A.R.; Skurnik, G.; Rimm, E.B.; Missmer, S.A.; Rich-Edwards, J.W. Early or late pregnancy loss and development of clinical cardiovascular disease risk factors: A prospective cohort study. BJOG Int. J. Obstet. Gynaecol 2019, 126, 33–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Okoth, K.; Subramanian, A.; Chandan, J.S.; Adderley, N.J.; Thomas, G.N.; Nirantharakumar, K.; Antza, C. Long term miscarriage-related hypertension and diabetes mellitus. Evidence from a United Kingdom population-based cohort study. PLoS ONE 2022, 17, e0261769. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Egerup, P.; Mikkelsen, A.P.; Kolte, A.M.; Westergaard, D.; Rasmussen, S.; Knop, F.K.; Lidegaard, Ø.; Nielsen, H.S. Pregnancy loss is associated with type 2 diabetes: A nationwide case–control study. Diabetologia 2020, 63, 1521–1529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kharazmi, E.; Lukanova, A.; Teucher, B.; Gross, M.L.; Kaaks, R. Does pregnancy or pregnancy loss increase later maternal risk of diabetes? Eur. J. Epidemiol. 2012, 27, 357–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhao, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Fan, K.; Jin, L. Association of History of Spontaneous or Induced Abortion With Subsequent Risk of Gestational Diabetes. JAMA Netw. Open 2022, 5, e220944. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yang, H.; Wei, Y.; Gao, X.; Xu, X.; Fan, L.; He, J.; Hu, Y.; Liu, X.; Chen, X.; Yang, Z.; et al. Risk factors for gestational diabetes mellitus in Chinese women-a prospective study of 16,286 pregnant women in China. Diabet. Med. 2009, 26, 1099–1104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xu, B.; Zhang, J.; Xu, Y.; Lu, J.; Xu, M.; Chen, Y.; Bi, Y.; Ning, G. Association between history of abortion and metabolic syndrome in middle-aged and elderly Chinese women. Front. Med. 2013, 7, 132–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ahmed, S.K.; Mahmood, N.; Malalla, Z.H.; Alsobyani, F.M.; Al-Kiyumi, I.S.; Almawi, W.Y. C-reactive protein gene variants associated with recurrent pregnancy loss independent of CRP serum levels: A case-control study. Gene 2015, 569, 136–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Moher, D.; Shamseer, L.; Clarke, M.; Ghersi, D.; Liberati, A.; Petticrew, M.; Shekelle, P.; Stewart, L.A.; Group, P.-P. Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Syst. Rev. 2015, 4, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Moher, D.; Liberati, A.; Tetzlaff, J.; Altman, D.G. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Ann. Intern. Med. 2009, 151, 264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Higgins, J.P.T. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.2.0 [Updated June 2017]; Green, S., Ed.; Wiley: Chichester, UK, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Aromataris, E. JBL Manual for Evidence Synthesis; Munn, Z., Ed.; JBI: Adelaide, Australia, 2020. [Google Scholar]
Table 1.
Initial Search Strategy Developed for Ovid/MEDLINE.
| Search Terms | |
|---|---|
| Exposure | |
| Miscarriage | MeSH terms: “Abortion, Spontaneous”, “Abortion, Induced”, or “Fetal Death”. Keywords: [Habitual/Recurrent] Miscarriage, Spontaneous/Induced/Habitual/Recurrent/Incomplete Abortion, Spontaneous/Pregnancy/Infant/Fetal loss, and Fetal Death/Demise. |
| Outcomes | |
| Diabetes mellitus | MeSH term: “Diabetes Mellitus”. Keywords: [Type-1/Type-2] Diabetes [Mellitus]. |
| Gestational diabetes | MeSH terms: “Diabetes, Gestational” or “Pregnancy in Diabetics”. Keywords: (Diabetes [Mellitus] AND Gestation */Pregnan *). |
| Hypertension | MeSH term: “Hypertension”. Keywords: (Hyperten *) or (High/Increas*/Elevat* Blood pressure) |
| Gestational hypertension | MeSH term: “Hypertension, Pregnancy-Induced”. Keywords: ((Hyperten * or High/Increas */Elevat * Blood pressure)) AND (Gestation */Pregnan *) or Eclampsia or Pre-eclampsia |
Abbreviations: MeSH, medical subject headings.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
MDPI and ACS Style
Foo, D.; Dunne, J.; Pereira, G.; Gebremedhin, A.; Duko, B.; Tessema, G.A. Diabetic and Hypertensive Disorders Following Miscarriage: A Protocol for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 8324. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148324
AMA Style
Foo D, Dunne J, Pereira G, Gebremedhin A, Duko B, Tessema GA. Diabetic and Hypertensive Disorders Following Miscarriage: A Protocol for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(14):8324. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148324
Chicago/Turabian StyleFoo, Damien, Jennifer Dunne, Gavin Pereira, Amanuel Gebremedhin, Bereket Duko, and Gizachew A. Tessema. 2022. "Diabetic and Hypertensive Disorders Following Miscarriage: A Protocol for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 14: 8324. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148324
APA StyleFoo, D., Dunne, J., Pereira, G., Gebremedhin, A., Duko, B., & Tessema, G. A. (2022). Diabetic and Hypertensive Disorders Following Miscarriage: A Protocol for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8324. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148324
Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.
