Do Disease and Pest Control Outsourcing Services Reduce Arable Land Abandonment? Evidence from China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Development of DPCOS in China
3. Methodology and Data
3.1. Methodology
3.2. Data
4. Empirical Results and Discussion
4.1. Baseline Results
4.2. Robustness Test
4.2.1. Changing the IV
4.2.2. Including the Other Agricultural Outsourcing Services
4.2.3. Using Rural-Village-Level Rations of Arable Land Abandonment as Dependent Variables
4.3. Heterogeneity Test
4.3.1. Heterogeneous Effects with Respect to Labor Resource Endowment
4.3.2. Heterogeneous Effects with Respect to Natural Resource Endowment
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Macdonald, D.; Crabtree, J.R.; Wiesinger, G.; Dax, T.; Stamou, N.; Fleury, P.; Lazpita, J.G.; Gibon, A. Agricultural abandonment in mountain areas of Europe: Environmental consequences and policy response. J. Environ. Manag. 2000, 59, 47–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parody, J.M.; Cuthbert, F.J.; Decker, E.H. The effect of 50 years of landscape change on species richness and community composition. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 2001, 10, 305–313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tokuoka, Y.; Ohigashi, K.; Nakagoshi, N. Limitations on tree seedling establishment across ecotones between abandoned fields and adjacent broad-leaved forests in eastern Japan. Plant Ecol. 2010, 212, 923–944. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, D.; Deng, X.; Huang, K.; Liu, Y.; Yong, Z.; Liu, S. Relationships between labor migration and cropland abandonment in rural China from the perspective of village types. Land Use Policy 2019, 88, 104164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Y.; Li, X.; Song, W.; Zhai, L. Land abandonment under rural restructuring in China explained from a cost-benefit perspective. J. Rural Stud. 2016, 47, 524–532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Y.; Li, X.; Tian, Y.; Tan, M. Structural change of agricultural land use intensity and its regional disparity in China. J. Geogr. Sci. 2009, 19, 545–556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Y.; Fang, F.; Li, Y. Key issues of land use in China and implications for policy making. Land Use Policy 2014, 40, 6–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Y.; Li, Y.; Westlund, H.; Liu, Y. Urban–rural transformation in relation to cultivated land conversion in China: Implications for optimizing land use and balanced regional development. Land Use Policy 2015, 47, 218–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Y.; Li, Y. Revitalize the world’s countryside. Nature 2017, 548, 275–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, Y.; Li, X.; Liu, Y. Rural land system reforms in China: History, issues, measures and prospects. Land Use Policy 2020, 91, 104330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, S.; Li, X. Progress and prospect on farmland abandonment. J. Geogr. Sci. 2017, 27, 1123–1150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, S.; Li, X.; Xin, L.; Tan, M.; Wang, X.; Wang, R.; Jiang, M.; Wang, Y. Extent and distribution of cropland abandonment in Chinese mountainous areas. Resour. Sci. 2017, 39, 1801–1811. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Huang, J.; Yang, J.; Rozelle, S. China’s agriculture: Drivers of change and implications for China and the rest of world. Agric. Econ. 2010, 41, 47–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, J.; Ding, J. Institutional innovation and policy support to facilitate small-scale farming transformation in China. Agric. Econ. 2016, 47, 227–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ji, C.; Guo, H.; Jin, S.; Yang, J. Outsourcing Agricultural Production: Evidence from Rice Farmers in Zhejiang Province. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0170861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, X.; Yu, X.; Tian, X.; Geng, X.; Zhou, Y. Farm size, inefficiency, and rice production cost in China. J. Prod. Anal. 2019, 52, 57–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, H.; Li, X. Cultivated land and food supply in China. Land Use Policy 2000, 17, 73–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, M. The effect of land use regulations on farmland protection and non-agricultural land conversions in China. Aust. J. Agric. Resour. Econ. 2019, 63, 643–667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carter, C.A. China’s Agriculture: Achievements and Challenges. ARE Update 2011, 14, 5–7. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, F.; Chen, X.; Vitousek, P.M. An experiment for the world. Nature 2013, 497, 33–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, J.; Wei, W.; Cui, Q.; Xie, W. The Prospects for China’s Food Security and Imports: Will China Starve the World Via Imports? J. Integr. Agric. 2017, 16, 2933–2944. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Benayas, J.R.; Martins, A.; Nicolau, J.M.; Schulz, J.J. Abandonment of agricultural land: An overview of drivers and consequences. CAB Rev. Perspect. Agric. Vet. Sci. Nutr. Nat. Resour. 2007, 2, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chen, H.; Zhou, H.; Lv, X. Analysis of farmers’ adoption of Regional Pest Control program: Based on empirical analysis of Jiangsu. J. Northwest AF Univ. -Soc. Sci. Ed. 2018, 18, 104–111. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, P.; Sun, D.; Zhong, F. Farming season delays, yield loss and outsourcing services under the labor shortage. Mod. Econ. Res. 2018, 440, 112–118. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, K.H.; Song, S. Rural–urban migration and urbanization in China: Evidence from time-series and cross-section analyses. China Econ. Rev. 2003, 14, 386–400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Strijker, D. Marginal lands in Europe—Causes of decline. Basic Appl. Ecol. 2005, 6, 99–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Igata, M.; Hendriksen, A.; Heijman, W. Agricultural outsourcing: A comparison between the Netherlands and Japan. Appl. Stud. Agribus. Commer. 2008, 2, 29–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jin, F.; Xin, L. Spatial distribution and impact factors of farmland abandonment. Resour. Sci. 2018, 40, 719–728. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, X.; Yang, J.; Thomas, R. Mechanization outsourcing clusters and division of labor in Chinese agriculture. China Econ. Rev. 2017, 43, 184–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, W.; Zhu, Z. A Note: Reducing Cropland Abandonment in China—Do Agricultural Cooperatives Play a Role? J. Agric. Econ. 2020, 71, 929–935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, W.; Zhu, Z.; Zhou, X. Agricultural mechanization and cropland abandonment in rural China. Appl. Econ. Lett. 2021, 29, 526–533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Romero-Calcerrada, R.; Perry, G.L. The role of land abandonment in landscape dynamics in the SPA ‘Encinares del río Alberche y Cofio, Central Spain, 1984–1999. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2004, 66, 217–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cao, Z.; He, J.; Liang, L. Economic analysis of farmland abandonment and the policy responses. J. Agrotech. Econ. 2008, 3, 43–46. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, Y.; Wang, X.; Glauben, T.; Brümmer, B. The impact of land reallocation on technical efficiency: Evidence from China. Agric. Econ. 2011, 42, 495–507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, H.; Riedinger, J.; Jin, S. Land documents, tenure security and land rental development: Panel evidence from China. China Econ. Rev. 2015, 36, 220–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Picazo-Tadeo, A.J.; Reig-Martínez, E. Outsourcing and efficiency: The case of Spanish citrus farming. Agric. Econ. 2006, 35, 213–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Owens, T.; Hoddinott, J.; Kinsey, B. The Impact of Agricultural Extension on Farm Production in Resettlement Areas of Zimbabwe. Econ. Dev. Cult. Chang. 2003, 51, 337–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Godtland, E.M.; Sadoulet, E.; de Janvry, A.; Murgai, R.; Ortiz, O. The Impact of Farmer Field Schools on Knowledge and Productivity: A Study of Potato Farmers in the Peruvian Andes. Econ. Dev. Cult. Chang. 2004, 53, 63–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dercon, S.; Gilligan, D.O.; Hoddinott, J.; Woldehanna, T. The Impact of Agricultural Extension and Roads on Poverty and Consumption Growth in Fifteen Ethiopian Villages. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 2009, 91, 1007–1021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lu, Q.; Zhang, C.; Qiu, H. The effect of aging of agricultural labor force and part-time farming on the outsourcing of agri-cultural production. Issues Agric. Econ. 2017, 38, 27–34. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, Y.; Li, B.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, J. Farm size and agricultural technology progress: Evidence from China. J. Rural Stud. 2022, 93, 417–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jiang, S.; Cao, Z.; Liu, H. The influence of agricultural socialization service on the moderate scale management of land and the comparativestudy: An empirical study based on the micro data of CHIP. J. Agrotech. Econ. 2016, 11, 4–13. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, Z.; Rao, F.; Zhu, P. The impact of specialized agricultural services on land scale management: An empirical analysis from the perspective of farmers’ land transfer-in. China Rural. Econ. 2019, 3, 82–95. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Chen, C.; Tang, R. The impact of rice production outsourcing on farmland renting: Based on the analysis of farming scale heterogeneities. J. Nanjing Agric. Univ. 2020, 5, 156–166. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luo, B.; Wan, Y.; Hong, W.; Zhong, W. Fragmentation, service outsourcing and farmland abandonment: An empirical analysis based on questionnaires from 2704 households in 9 provinces. Econ. Rev. J. 2019, 7, 63–73. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ji, M.; Li, L. Four questions on accelerating the development of agricultural production outsourcing services. Newsl. Work. Rural. Areas 2019, 748, 39–44. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Ji, M. Agricultural production trusteeship is a major innovation of agricultural business model in the new era. Newsl. Work. Rural. Areas 2020, 782, 16–18. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Gao, Y.; Dong, J.; Zhang, X.; Yu, L. Enabling for-profit pest control firms to meet farmers’ preferences for cleaner production: Evidence from grain family farms in the Huang-huai-hai plain, China. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 227, 141–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Y.; Hu, W.; Jetté-Nantel, S.; Tian, Z. The Influence of Labor Price Change on Agricultural Machinery Usage in Chinese Agriculture. Can. J. Agric. Econ. Can. D’agroeconomie 2014, 62, 219–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, X.; Yamauchi, F.; Huang, J. Rising wages, mechanization, and the substitution between capital and labor: Evidence from small scale farm system in China. Agric. Econ. 2016, 47, 309–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, J.; Gao, L.; Rozelle, S. The effect of off-farm employment on the decisions of households to rent out and rent in cultivated land in China. China Agric. Econ. Rev. 2012, 4, 5–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paman, U.; Inaba, S.; Uchida, S. The mechanization of small-scale rice farming: Labor requirements and costs. Eng. Agric. Environ. Food 2014, 7, 122–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- MARA (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of People’s Republic of China). Response to Recommendation No. 4703 of the 2nd Session of the 13th National People’s Congress. Available online: http://www.moa.gov.cn/govpublic/KJJYS/201909/t20190923_6328700.htm (accessed on 23 September 2019).
- Ying, R.; Xu, B. Effects of regional pest control adoption on pesticides application. China Popul. Resour. Environ. 2017, 27, 90–97. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, C.; Guanming, S.; Shen, J.; Hu, R.-F. Productivity effect and overuse of pesticide in crop production in China. J. Integr. Agric. 2015, 14, 1903–1910. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gao, Y.; Li, P.; Wu, L.; Lu, J.; Yu, L.; Yin, S. Support policy preferences of for-profit pest control firms in China. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 181, 809–818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ferrali, R.; Grossman, G.; Platas, M.R.; Rodden, J. It Takes a Village: Peer Effects and Externalities in Technology Adoption. Am. J. Politi Sci. 2020, 64, 536–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, J.; Huang, Z.; Zhang, X.; Reardon, T. The Rapid Rise of Cross-Regional Agricultural Mechanization Services in China. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 2013, 95, 1245–1251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, F.; An, P.; Huang, C.; Zhang, Z.; Hao, J. Is afforestation-induced land use change the main contributor to vegetation dynamics in the semiarid region of North China? Ecol. Indic. 2018, 88, 282–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nijbroek, R.P.; Andelman, S.J. Regional suitability for agricultural intensification: A spatial analysis of the Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania. Int. J. Agric. Sustain. 2016, 14, 231–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stürck, J.; Verburg, P. Multifunctionality at what scale? A landscape multifunctionality assessment for the European Union under conditions of land use change. Landsc. Ecol. 2016, 32, 481–500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Groot, R.S.; Alkemade, R.; Braat, L.; Hein, L.; Willemen, L. Challenges in integrating the concept of ecosystem services and values in landscape planning, management and decision making. Ecol. Complex. 2010, 7, 260–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Variable | Implication and Value |
---|---|
The ratio of arable land abandonment | The rate of the abandoned area to the total area at the household level |
Disease and pest control outsourcing service (DPCOS) | 1 = yes, 0 = no |
Gender of household head (HH) | 1 = male, 0 = female |
Education level of HH | Years |
Hukou of HH | 1 = agricultural hukou or urban-rural unified hukou 1 transformed from agricultural hukou, 0 = non-agricultural hukou or urban-rural unified hukou transformed from non-agricultural hukou |
Health of HH | 1 = very good health, 2 = good health, 3 = general, 4 = poor health, 5 = very poor health |
Age of HH | Age of household head |
Tractor | Whether the household owns tractors? (1 = yes, 0 = no) |
Large agricultural machinery | Whether the household owns large agricultural machinery (i.e., harvester, transplanter, drill, large combine harvester) (1 = yes, 0 = no) |
Government subsidy | Whether the household obtains subsidies (1 = yes, 0 = no) |
Specialized household 2 | Whether the household is specialized household? (1 = yes, 0 = no) |
income | Average annual income per household member |
Farmland registration | Whether the household owns the certificate of Right to Land Contractual Management in Rural Area (1 = yes, 0 = no) |
Average farmland (mu) | Area of farmland per household member |
Suburb | Whether the village is located in a suburb (1 = yes, 0 = no) |
Non-agricultural economy | Whether the village has a non-agricultural economy (1 = yes, 0 = no) |
Natural disaster | Has the village ever suffered a serious natural disaster (1 = yes, 0 = no) |
Distance to the county center (km) | The logarithm of the distance between the nearest county center or district government and rural village |
Terrain | 1 = plain terrain, 2 = hilly terrain, 3 = mountainous terrain |
Obs. | Mean | Sta. Dev. | Min | Max | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
The ration of arable land abandonment | 15,638 | 7.354 | 23.536 | 0 | 100 |
DPCOS | 15,694 | 0.376 | 0.484 | 0 | 1 |
Gender of HH | 22,223 | 0.882 | 0.323 | 0 | 1 |
Education level of HH | 22,009 | 11.325 | 5.534 | 0 | 22 |
Hukou of HH | 22,212 | 0.959 | 0.198 | 0 | 1 |
Health of HH | 22,183 | 2.469 | 1.050 | 1 | 5 |
Age of HH | 21,928 | 53.576 | 13.07 | 3 | 108 |
Large agricultural machinery | 22,268 | 0.021 | 0.143 | 0 | 1 |
Tractor | 22,272 | 0.132 | 0.338 | 0 | 1 |
Government subsidy | 10,070 | 0.599 | 0.490 | 0 | 1 |
Specialized household | 10,072 | 0.079 | 0.270 | 0 | 1 |
Average annual income per household member | 20,496 | 8.361 | 1.192 | −0.102 | 13.364 |
Farmland registration | 14,361 | 0.488 | 0.500 | 0 | 1 |
Area of farmland per household member | 21,384 | 1.398 | 5.327 | 0 | 511 |
Suburb | 22,354 | 0.082 | 0.275 | 0 | 1 |
Non-agricultural economy | 21,844 | 0.321 | 0.467 | 0 | 1 |
Natural disaster | 21,879 | 0.466 | 0.499 | 0 | 1 |
Distance to the county center | 21,701 | 25.625 | 21.805 | 0 | 120 |
Terrain | 20,193 | 1.811 | 0.836 | 1 | 3 |
OLS (Y = Arable Land Abandonment) | Tobit (Y = Arable Land Abandonment) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
DPCOS | −0.54 | −0.07 | −0.54 | −0.07 |
(−1.05) | (−0.14) | (−1.06) | (−0.14) | |
Observations | 14,871 | 6860 | 14,871 | 6860 |
Controls | No | Yes | No | Yes |
City dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Year dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
First Stage (Y = DPCOS) | Reduced-Form Estimates (Y = Arable Land Abandonment) | The Second Stage (Y = Arable Land Abandonment) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
DPCOS | −5.52 *** | −6.59 *** | ||||
(−6.34) | (−4.48) | |||||
Provincial-level DPCOS | −4.21 *** | −4.71 *** | 22.49 *** | 31.04 *** | ||
(−75.02) | (−24.55) | (6.28) | (4.43) | |||
K-P | 3666.55 *** | 653.58 *** | ||||
M-P | 4883.74 a | 707.779 a | ||||
Wooldridge endogeneity test | 29.64 *** | 19.33 *** | ||||
Observations | 14,630 | 6738 | 15,154 | 6738 | 14,630 | 6738 |
Controls | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
City dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Year dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
First Stage (Y = DPCOS) | Second Stage (Y = Arable Land Abandonment) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
Panel A. City-Level DPCOS as IV for Rural Village DCPCOS | ||||
City-level DPCOS | 0.12 *** | 0.10 *** | ||
(41.56) | (18.42) | |||
DPCOS | −8.26 *** | −6.04 *** | ||
(−6.01) | (−3.06) | |||
Observations | 13,696 | 6235 | 13,696 | 6235 |
K-P | 1120.66 *** | 263.18 *** | ||
M-P | 1728.00 a | 339.90 a | ||
Panel B. County-level DPCOS as IV for Rural Village DCPCOS | ||||
County-level DPCOS | 0.11 *** | 0.08 *** | ||
(33.23) | (13.84) | |||
DPCOS | −9.78 *** | −10.71 *** | ||
(−6.16) | (−3.91) | |||
Observations | 14,253 | 6497 | 14,253 | 6497 |
K-P | 814.62100 *** | 166.89 *** | ||
M-P | 1104.72 a | 191.87 a | ||
Observations | 9648 | 4279 | 9648 | 4279 |
Controls | No | Yes | No | Yes |
City dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Year dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Panel A. Irrigation and Drainage Services | ||||||
DPCOS | −7.53 *** | |||||
(−4.21) | ||||||
Panel B. Mechanized Planting Services | ||||||
DPCOS | −7.21 *** | |||||
(−4.45) | ||||||
Panel C. Agricultural Material Supply Services | ||||||
DPCOS | −6.76 *** | |||||
(−4.55) | ||||||
Panel D. Planting Programming Services | ||||||
DPCOS | −10.11 *** | |||||
(−3.52) | ||||||
Panel E. Employment Guidance Services | ||||||
DPCOS | −6.60 *** | |||||
(−4.48) | ||||||
Panel F. Agricultural Technology Training Services | ||||||
DPCOS | −6.55 *** | |||||
(−4.48) | ||||||
Observations | 6738 | 6738 | 6738 | 4871 | 6738 | 6738 |
Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
City dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Year dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
First Stage (Y = DPCOS) | Second Stage (Y= Village-Level Arable Land Abandonment) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
Provincial-level DPCOS | −4.35 *** | −4.36 *** | ||
(−36.99) | (−34.01) | |||
DPCOS | −3.44 *** | −2.26 *** | ||
(−4.84) | (−4.42) | |||
Observations | 14,847 | 12,635 | 14,847 | 12,635 |
K-P | 555.70 *** | 531.36 *** | ||
M-P a | 1249.45 | 1180.05 | ||
Controls | No | Yes | No | Yes |
City dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Year dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
2SLS (Y = Arable Land Abandonment) | ||
---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | |
Panel A. The Ratio of the Non-Agricultural Employment of Rural Households | ||
Low group | −3.34 | −4.41 ** |
(−1.40) | (−1.97) | |
Middle–low group | −0.92 | −2.56 |
(−0.27) | (−0.99) | |
Middle group | −2.43 | −3.70 * |
(−1.08) | (−1.91) | |
Middle–high group | −8.41 ** | −7.50 *** |
(−2.42) | (−2.62) | |
High group | −15.07 *** | −21.59 * |
(−4.28) | (−1.75) | |
Panel B. The Village-Level Ratio of the Seasonal Non-Agricultural Employment | ||
Low group | −6.86 ** | −3.14 |
(−2.50) | (−0.42) | |
Middle–low group | −2.11 | −2.84 |
(−0.32) | (−0.95) | |
Middle group | −6.64 | 2.12 |
(−1.06) | (−0.79) | |
Middle–high group | −11.51 *** | −7.43 ** |
(−3.35) | (−2.46) | |
High group | −10.09 *** | −11.56 *** |
(−2.85) | (−3.83) |
2SLS (Y = Arable Land Abandonment) | ||
---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | |
Panel A. Soil Modification Programme (SMP) in the Given Villages | ||
Yes | 1.37 | 4.10 |
(0.08) | (0.15) | |
No | −5.88 *** | −2.71 *** |
(−5.50) | (−3.02) | |
Panel B. Grain-for-Green Programme (GGP)in the Given Villages | ||
Yes | −10.97 *** | −5.68 *** |
(−5.23) | (−3.82) | |
No | −3.02 *** | −1.35 |
(−2.72) | (−1.10) | |
Panel C. Closing-Hillsides-for-Afforestation Programme (CHAP) in the Given Villages | ||
Yes | −6.85 *** | −6.40 *** |
(−2.92) | (−3.13) | |
No | −3.86 *** | −1.02 |
(−3.09) | (−0.97) | |
Panel D. Village Terrain Features | ||
Plain terrain | −7.86 * | −8.92 *** |
(−1.92) | (−2.97) | |
Hilly terrain | −17.15 *** | −17.87 ** |
(−3.86) | (−2.12) | |
Mountainous terrain | 0.20 | −1.44 |
(0.09) | (−0.85) | |
Controls | No | Yes |
City dummies | Yes | Yes |
Year dummies | Yes | Yes |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Zhang, X.; Yan, G.; He, Y.; Yu, H. Do Disease and Pest Control Outsourcing Services Reduce Arable Land Abandonment? Evidence from China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 11398. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811398
Zhang X, Yan G, He Y, Yu H. Do Disease and Pest Control Outsourcing Services Reduce Arable Land Abandonment? Evidence from China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(18):11398. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811398
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Xiaoheng, Guiquan Yan, Yucheng He, and Hailong Yu. 2022. "Do Disease and Pest Control Outsourcing Services Reduce Arable Land Abandonment? Evidence from China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 18: 11398. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811398