People’s Perception of Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Case Study in Japan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics of the Dependent Variables
3.2. OLR
3.2.1. Change in Job Satisfaction
3.2.2. Change in Satisfaction with Family
3.2.3. Change in Psychological Well-Being
3.2.4. Change in Economic Well-Being
3.3. Creation of a New CI
3.3.1. PCA
3.3.2. OLS Regression
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Total n (%) | Heavily Deteriorated n (%) | Deteriorated n (%) | Unchanged n (%) | Improved n (%) | Heavily Improved n (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Change in job satisfaction | 400 | 19 | 63 | 300 | 17 | 1 |
(100.0) | (4.8) | (15.8) | (75.0) | (4.3) | (0.3) | |
Change in satisfaction with family | 400 | 4 | 40 | 314 | 36 | 6 |
(100.0) | (1.0) | (10.0) | (78.5) | (9.0) | (1.5) | |
Change in psychological well-being | 400 | 31 | 128 | 216 | 22 | 3 |
(100.0) | (7.8) | (32.0) | (54.0) | (5.5) | (0.8) | |
Change in economic well-being | 400 | 32 | 101 | 256 | 11 | 0 |
(100.0) | (8.0) | (25.3) | (64.0) | (2.8) | (0.0) |
Estimate | SE | Wald | df | Sig. | 95% CI | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | |||||||
Threshold | Heavily deteriorated | −4.578 | 0.952 | 23.112 | 1 | <0.001 | −6.445 | −2.712 |
Deteriorated | −2.771 | 0.924 | 8.995 | 1 | 0.003 | −4.582 | −0.960 | |
Unchanged | 2.052 | 0.921 | 4.962 | 1 | 0.026 | 0.246 | 3.857 | |
Improved | 4.975 | 1.329 | 14.017 | 1 | <0.001 | 2.371 | 7.580 | |
Location | Change in daily food, water, electricity and heat consumption | −0.428 | 0.213 | 4.060 | 1 | 0.044 | −0.845 | −0.012 |
Change in use of public transportation | 0.093 | 0.231 | 0.162 | 1 | 0.688 | −0.360 | 0.545 | |
Change in use of private transportation | 0.101 | 0.242 | 0.175 | 1 | 0.675 | −0.372 | 0.575 | |
Change in use of medical and hospital services | −0.052 | 0.213 | 0.060 | 1 | 0.807 | −0.469 | 0.365 | |
Change in use of banking and financial services | 0.075 | 0.264 | 0.080 | 1 | 0.777 | −0.443 | 0.592 | |
Change in use of telephone and internet services | −0.035 | 0.202 | 0.029 | 1 | 0.864 | −0.430 | 0.361 | |
Concerns about the lack of economic recovery measures | −0.056 | 0.122 | 0.213 | 1 | 0.644 | −0.296 | 0.183 | |
Concerns about the risk of a new wave of COVID-19 infection spreading | −0.199 | 0.130 | 2.351 | 1 | 0.125 | −0.453 | 0.055 | |
Concerns about the possible disruption of essential and basic services | −0.013 | 0.161 | 0.006 | 1 | 0.936 | −0.328 | 0.302 | |
Concerns about the possibility of simultaneous occurrence of natural hazards | −0.226 | 0.161 | 1.975 | 1 | 0.160 | −0.541 | 0.089 | |
Concerns about the risk of simultaneous acts of terrorism, cyber-attacks, riots | 0.028 | 0.151 | 0.035 | 1 | 0.851 | −0.267 | 0.323 | |
Age | −0.018 | 0.014 | 1.685 | 1 | 0.194 | −0.044 | 0.009 | |
Number of households | −0.008 | 0.024 | 0.107 | 1 | 0.744 | −0.054 | 0.039 | |
[Gender = 0] | −0.327 | 0.273 | 1.434 | 1 | 0.231 | −0.862 | 0.208 | |
[Education level = 0] | −0.194 | 0.247 | 0.615 | 1 | 0.433 | −0.677 | 0.290 | |
[Family structure = 0] | 0.967 | 0.318 | 9.252 | 1 | 0.002 | 0.344 | 1.590 | |
[Length of residency = 0] | −0.061 | 0.262 | 0.053 | 1 | 0.817 | −0.574 | 0.453 | |
[Existence of dependents = 0] | 0.297 | 0.275 | 1.164 | 1 | 0.281 | −0.243 | 0.837 | |
[Existence of pets = 0] | 0.105 | 0.297 | 0.125 | 1 | 0.723 | −0.477 | 0.687 | |
[Employment = 0] | 0.276 | 0.278 | 0.987 | 1 | 0.321 | −0.268 | 0.820 | |
[Annual household income = 0] | 0.178 | 0.258 | 0.475 | 1 | 0.491 | −0.328 | 0.684 | |
[Residency in the Greater Tokyo area = 0] | −0.202 | 0.291 | 0.482 | 1 | 0.488 | −0.772 | 0.368 | |
Pseudo R-square | ||||||||
Cox and Snell | 0.105 | |||||||
Nagelkerke | 0.131 | |||||||
McFadden | 0.069 |
Estimate | SE | Wald | df | Sig. | 95% CI | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | |||||||
Threshold | Heavily deteriorated | −3.412 | 1.051 | 10.534 | 1 | 0.001 | −5.473 | −1.352 |
Deteriorated | −0.864 | 0.942 | 0.841 | 1 | 0.359 | −2.710 | 0.983 | |
Unchanged | 3.815 | 0.974 | 15.345 | 1 | <0.001 | 1.906 | 5.723 | |
Improved | 5.941 | 1.050 | 32.016 | 1 | <0.001 | 3.883 | 7.999 | |
Location | Change in daily food, water, electricity and heat consumption | 0.205 | 0.229 | 0.807 | 1 | 0.369 | −0.243 | 0.654 |
Change in use of public transportation | −0.142 | 0.237 | 0.359 | 1 | 0.549 | −0.607 | 0.323 | |
Change in use of private transportation | 0.149 | 0.252 | 0.352 | 1 | 0.553 | −0.344 | 0.643 | |
Change in use of medical and hospital services | −0.172 | 0.230 | 0.559 | 1 | 0.455 | −0.624 | 0.279 | |
Change in use of banking and financial services | −0.066 | 0.291 | 0.051 | 1 | 0.821 | −0.636 | 0.505 | |
Change in use of telephone and internet services | 0.191 | 0.216 | 0.783 | 1 | 0.376 | −0.233 | 0.616 | |
Concerns about the lack of economic recovery measures | 0.015 | 0.129 | 0.013 | 1 | 0.909 | −0.238 | 0.268 | |
Concerns about the risk of a new wave of COVID-19 infection spreading | 0.084 | 0.133 | 0.397 | 1 | 0.528 | −0.177 | 0.344 | |
Concerns about the possible disruption of essential and basic services | 0.145 | 0.171 | 0.723 | 1 | 0.395 | −0.190 | 0.481 | |
Concerns about the possibility of simultaneous occurrence of natural hazards | −0.356 | 0.170 | 4.403 | 1 | 0.036 | −0.688 | −0.023 | |
Concerns about the risk of simultaneous acts of terrorism, cyber-attacks, riots | 0.047 | 0.160 | 0.087 | 1 | 0.767 | −0.265 | 0.360 | |
Age | −0.007 | 0.014 | 0.212 | 1 | 0.645 | −0.034 | 0.021 | |
Number of households | 0.035 | 0.026 | 1.801 | 1 | 0.180 | −0.016 | 0.087 | |
[Gender = 0] | 0.395 | 0.289 | 1.876 | 1 | 0.171 | −0.170 | 0.961 | |
[Education level = 0] | −0.272 | 0.262 | 1.075 | 1 | 0.300 | −0.786 | 0.242 | |
[Family structure = 0] | 1.148 | 0.351 | 10.706 | 1 | 0.001 | 0.460 | 1.835 | |
[Length of residency = 0] | 0.558 | 0.276 | 4.099 | 1 | 0.043 | 0.018 | 1.098 | |
[Existence of dependents = 0] | 0.574 | 0.289 | 3.942 | 1 | 0.047 | 0.007 | 1.141 | |
[Existence of pets = 0] | 0.357 | 0.314 | 1.297 | 1 | 0.255 | −0.258 | 0.972 | |
[Employment = 0] | −0.243 | 0.292 | 0.693 | 1 | 0.405 | −0.816 | 0.329 | |
[Annual household income = 0] | 0.090 | 0.274 | 0.107 | 1 | 0.743 | −0.448 | 0.627 | |
[Residency in the Greater Tokyo area = 0] | −0.442 | 0.307 | 2.078 | 1 | 0.149 | −1.043 | 0.159 | |
Pseudo R-square | ||||||||
Cox and Snell | 0.090 | |||||||
Nagelkerke | 0.117 | |||||||
McFadden | 0.063 |
Estimate | SE | Wald | df | Sig. | 95% CI | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | |||||||
Threshold | Heavily deteriorated | −3.640 | 0.793 | 21.054 | 1 | <0.001 | −5.194 | −2.085 |
Deteriorated | −1.283 | 0.770 | 2.777 | 1 | 0.096 | −2.791 | 0.226 | |
Unchanged | 2.204 | 0.781 | 7.971 | 1 | 0.005 | 0.674 | 3.734 | |
Improved | 4.398 | 0.946 | 21.602 | 1 | <0.001 | 2.543 | 6.252 | |
Location | Change in daily food, water, electricity and heat consumption | −0.247 | 0.184 | 1.796 | 1 | 0.180 | −0.608 | 0.114 |
Change in use of public transportation | −0.302 | 0.199 | 2.292 | 1 | 0.130 | −0.693 | 0.089 | |
Change in use of private transportation | 0.445 | 0.210 | 4.520 | 1 | 0.034 | 0.035 | 0.856 | |
Change in use of medical and hospital services | 0.328 | 0.185 | 3.144 | 1 | 0.076 | −0.035 | 0.690 | |
Change in use of banking and financial services | 0.129 | 0.234 | 0.307 | 1 | 0.580 | −0.328 | 0.587 | |
Change in use of telephone and internet services | −0.346 | 0.174 | 3.961 | 1 | 0.047 | −0.687 | −0.005 | |
Concerns about the lack of economic recovery measures | −0.072 | 0.104 | 0.477 | 1 | 0.490 | −0.277 | 0.132 | |
Concerns about the risk of a new wave of COVID-19 infection spreading | −0.182 | 0.109 | 2.760 | 1 | 0.097 | −0.396 | 0.033 | |
Concerns about the possible disruption of essential and basic services | −0.065 | 0.140 | 0.215 | 1 | 0.643 | −0.338 | 0.209 | |
Concerns about the possibility of simultaneous occurrence of natural hazards | 0.036 | 0.138 | 0.067 | 1 | 0.796 | −0.236 | 0.307 | |
Concerns about the risk of simultaneous acts of terrorism, cyber-attacks, riots | −0.031 | 0.131 | 0.057 | 1 | 0.811 | −0.289 | 0.226 | |
Age | −0.012 | 0.012 | 1.017 | 1 | 0.313 | −0.034 | 0.011 | |
Number of households | 0.035 | 0.023 | 2.291 | 1 | 0.130 | −0.010 | 0.081 | |
[Gender = 0] | 0.008 | 0.232 | 0.001 | 1 | 0.974 | −0.447 | 0.463 | |
[Education level = 0] | −0.529 | 0.211 | 6.271 | 1 | 0.012 | −0.943 | −0.115 | |
[Family structure = 0] | 1.005 | 0.280 | 12.842 | 1 | <0.001 | 0.455 | 1.554 | |
[Length of residency = 0] | 0.354 | 0.223 | 2.518 | 1 | 0.113 | −0.083 | 0.792 | |
[Existence of dependents = 0] | 0.556 | 0.233 | 5.700 | 1 | 0.017 | 0.100 | 1.013 | |
[Existence of pets = 0] | −0.138 | 0.254 | 0.297 | 1 | 0.586 | −0.636 | 0.359 | |
[Employment = 0] | −0.182 | 0.234 | 0.604 | 1 | 0.437 | −0.642 | 0.277 | |
[Annual household income = 0] | 0.233 | 0.220 | 1.120 | 1 | 0.290 | −0.198 | 0.664 | |
[Residency in the Greater Tokyo area = 0] | −0.563 | 0.253 | 4.971 | 1 | 0.026 | −1.058 | −0.068 | |
Pseudo R-square | ||||||||
Cox and Snell | 0.165 | |||||||
Nagelkerke | 0.186 | |||||||
McFadden | 0.083 |
Estimate | SE | Wald | df | Sig. | 95% CI | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | |||||||
Threshold | Heavily deteriorated | −4.633 | 0.871 | 28.281 | 1 | <0.001 | −6.341 | −2.926 |
Deteriorated | −2.578 | 0.845 | 9.304 | 1 | 0.002 | −4.234 | −0.921 | |
Unchanged | 2.218 | 0.862 | 6.625 | 1 | 0.010 | 0.529 | 3.906 | |
Location | Change in daily food, water, electricity and heat consumption | −0.492 | 0.197 | 6.238 | 1 | 0.013 | −0.878 | −0.106 |
Change in use of public transportation | −0.002 | 0.216 | 0.000 | 1 | 0.993 | −0.425 | 0.421 | |
Change in use of private transportation | 0.241 | 0.223 | 1.171 | 1 | 0.279 | −0.196 | 0.678 | |
Change in use of medical and hospital services | 0.192 | 0.195 | 0.966 | 1 | 0.326 | −0.191 | 0.575 | |
Change in use of banking and financial services | −0.143 | 0.248 | 0.331 | 1 | 0.565 | −0.629 | 0.344 | |
Change in use of telephone and internet services | 0.019 | 0.185 | 0.010 | 1 | 0.920 | −0.344 | 0.382 | |
Concerns about the lack of economic recovery measures | −0.222 | 0.112 | 3.921 | 1 | 0.048 | −0.441 | −0.002 | |
Concerns about the risk of a new wave of COVID-19 infection spreading | −0.174 | 0.117 | 2.203 | 1 | 0.138 | −0.405 | 0.056 | |
Concerns about the possible disruption of essential and basic services | −0.316 | 0.149 | 4.510 | 1 | 0.034 | −0.607 | −0.024 | |
Concerns about the possibility of simultaneous occurrence of natural hazards | 0.290 | 0.151 | 3.705 | 1 | 0.054 | −0.005 | 0.586 | |
Concerns about the risk of simultaneous acts of terrorism, cyber-attacks, riots | −0.171 | 0.139 | 1.515 | 1 | 0.218 | −0.443 | 0.101 | |
Age | −0.018 | 0.012 | 2.170 | 1 | 0.141 | −0.043 | 0.006 | |
Number of households | 0.025 | 0.025 | 0.972 | 1 | 0.324 | −0.025 | 0.075 | |
[Gender = 0] | −0.106 | 0.250 | 0.180 | 1 | 0.671 | −0.596 | 0.384 | |
[Education level = 0] | −0.617 | 0.228 | 7.297 | 1 | 0.007 | −1.065 | −0.169 | |
[Family structure = 0] | 0.599 | 0.297 | 4.072 | 1 | 0.044 | 0.017 | 1.181 | |
[Length of residency = 0] | 0.130 | 0.240 | 0.295 | 1 | 0.587 | −0.340 | 0.601 | |
[Existence of dependents = 0] | 0.204 | 0.250 | 0.664 | 1 | 0.415 | −0.286 | 0.694 | |
[Existence of pets = 0] | 0.310 | 0.267 | 1.356 | 1 | 0.244 | −0.212 | 0.833 | |
[Employment = 0] | −0.391 | 0.250 | 2.432 | 1 | 0.119 | −0.881 | 0.100 | |
[Annual household income = 0] | 0.440 | 0.235 | 3.500 | 1 | 0.061 | −0.021 | 0.901 | |
[Residency in the Greater Tokyo area = 0] | −0.378 | 0.274 | 1.904 | 1 | 0.168 | −0.915 | 0.159 | |
Pseudo R-square | ||||||||
Cox and Snell | 0.183 | |||||||
Nagelkerke | 0.216 | |||||||
McFadden | 0.108 |
Component | Initial Eigenvalues | Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | % of Variance | Cumulative % | Total | % of Variance | Cumulative % | |
1 | 2.057 | 51.422 | 51.422 | 2.057 | 51.422 | 51.422 |
2 | 0.883 | 22.066 | 73.488 | |||
3 | 0.598 | 14.942 | 88.430 | |||
4 | 0.463 | 11.570 | 100.000 | |||
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis |
Component 1 | |
---|---|
change in psychological well-being | 0.815 |
change in economic well-being | 0.753 |
change in job satisfaction | 0.678 |
change in satisfaction with family | 0.605 |
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis |
CI | |
---|---|
Mean | −0.5382 |
Median | −0.0047 |
Std. Deviation | 1.00000 |
Variance | 1.000 |
Skewness | −0.577 |
Std. Error of Skewness | 0.122 |
Kurtosis | 1.407 |
Std. Error of Kurtosis | 0.243 |
Minimum | −3.80 |
Maximum | 2.72 |
Unstandardized Coefficients | Standardized Coefficients | t | Sig. | 95% Confidence Interval for B | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | Std. Error | Beta | Lower | Upper | |||
(Constant) | 0.559 | 0.264 | 2.118 | 0.035 | 0.040 | 1.078 | |
Change in daily food, water, electricity and heat consumption | −0.155 | 0.076 | −0.100 | −2.044 | 0.042 | −0.305 | −0.006 |
Concerns about the risk of a new wave of COVID-19 infection spreading | −0.098 | 0.046 | −0.111 | −2.117 | 0.035 | −0.189 | −0.007 |
Concerns about the possible disruption of essential and basic services | −0.112 | 0.049 | −0.119 | −2.276 | 0.023 | −0.210 | −0.015 |
Education level | 0.274 | 0.094 | 0.137 | 2.902 | 0.004 | 0.088 | 0.460 |
Age | −0.011 | 0.005 | −0.111 | −2.348 | 0.019 | −0.020 | −0.002 |
Family structure | −0.534 | 0.124 | −0.221 | −4.301 | <0.001 | −0.779 | −0.290 |
Existence of dependents | −0.226 | 0.104 | −0.107 | −2.163 | 0.031 | −0.431 | −0.021 |
Annual household income | −0.210 | 0.100 | −0.103 | −2.097 | 0.037 | −0.406 | −0.013 |
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Sasaki, D.; Suppasri, A.; Tsukuda, H.; Nguyen, D.N.; Onoda, Y.; Imamura, F. People’s Perception of Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Case Study in Japan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12146. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912146
Sasaki D, Suppasri A, Tsukuda H, Nguyen DN, Onoda Y, Imamura F. People’s Perception of Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Case Study in Japan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12146. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912146
Chicago/Turabian StyleSasaki, Daisuke, Anawat Suppasri, Haruka Tsukuda, David N. Nguyen, Yasuaki Onoda, and Fumihiko Imamura. 2022. "People’s Perception of Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Case Study in Japan" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12146. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912146