A Systematic Review of Mechanisms Underpinning Psychological Change Following Nature Exposure in an Adolescent Population
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Stress Reduction Theory (SRT; [26])
1.2. Attention Restoration Theory (ART; [33])
1.3. Affect Regulation
1.4. Aim
2. Methods and Analysis
2.1. Search Strategy
2.2. Eligibility and Study Selection
2.3. Data Extraction
2.4. Study Quality and Risk of Bias
2.5. Data Synthesis
3. Results
3.1. Search Results
3.2. Study Characteristics
3.3. Quality Appraisal
3.4. Outcomes
3.4.1. Mood and Affect
3.4.2. Stress
3.4.3. Energy
3.4.4. Perceived Restoration
3.4.5. Mental Health
3.4.6. Self-Concept
3.4.7. Cognitive Functioning
3.4.8. Wellbeing
3.4.9. Resilience
3.4.10. Pro-Social Behaviour
3.5. Mediation Analyses
3.6. Risk of Bias
4. Discussion
4.1. Strengths
4.2. Limitations
4.3. Implications and Future Research
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Muñoz, R.F.; Cuijpers, P.; Smit, F.; Barrera, A.Z.; Leykin, Y. Prevention of Major Depression. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2010, 6, 181–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hartig, T.; Mitchell, R.; de Vries, S.; Frumkin, H. Nature and Health. Annu. Rev. Public Health 2014, 35, 207–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hossain, M.M.; Sultana, A.; Ma, P.; Fan, Q.; Sharma, R.; Purohit, N.; Sharmin, D.F. Effects of Natural Environment on Mental Health: An Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. PsyArXiv 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Frumkin, H.; Bratman, G.N.; Breslow, S.J.; Cochran, B.; Kahn, P.H.; Lawler, J.J.; Levin, P.S.; Tandon, P.S.; Varanasi, U.; Wolf, K.L.; et al. Nature Contact and Human Health: A Research Agenda. Environ. Health Perspect. 2017, 125, 075001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Owens, M.; Bunce, H. The Potential for Outdoor Nature-Based Interventions in the Treatment and Prevention of Depression. Front. Psychol. 2022, 13, 920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roberts, A.; Hinds, J.; Camic, P.M. Nature Activities and Wellbeing in Children and Young People: A Systematic Literature Review. J. Adventure Educ. Outdoor Learn. 2020, 20, 298–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tillmann, S.; Tobin, D.; Avison, W.; Gilliland, J. Mental Health Benefits of Interactions with Nature in Children and Teenagers: A Systematic Review. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2018, 958–966. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blakemore, S.J. Adolescence and Mental Health. Lancet 2019, 393, 2030–2031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jones, P.B. Adult Mental Health Disorders and Their Age at Onset. Br. J. Psychiatry 2013, 202, 5–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kessler, R.C.; Amminger, G.P.; Aguilar-Gaxiola, S.; Alonso, J.; Lee, S.; Üstün, T.B. Age of Onset of Mental Disorders: A Review of Recent Literature. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 2007, 20, 359–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keenan-Miller, D.; Hammen, C.L.; Brennan, P.A. Health Outcomes Related to Early Adolescent Depression. J. Adolesc. Health 2007, 41, 256–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Muñoz, R.F.; San, F.; Hospital, F.G.; Beardslee, W.R.; Leykin, Y. Major Depression Can Be Prevented. Am. Psychol. 2012, 67, 285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Jacka, F.N.; Mykletun, A.; Berk, M. Moving towards a Population Health Approach to the Primary Prevention of Common Mental Disorders. BMC Med. 2012, 10, 149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Noordsy, D.L. Lifestyle Psychiatry; American Psychiatric Association Publishing: Washington, DC, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Capaldi, C.; Passmore, H.-A.; Nisbet, E.; Zelenski, J.; Dopko, R. Flourishing in Nature: A Review of the Benefits of Connecting with Nature and Its Application as a Wellbeing Intervention. Int. J. Wellbeing 2015, 5, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Piotrowski, M.C.; Lunsford, J.; Gaynes, B.N. Lifestyle Psychiatry for Depression and Anxiety: Beyond Diet and Exercise. Lifestyle Med. 2021, 2, e21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bratman, G.N.; Hamilton, J.P.; Daily, G.C. The Impacts of Nature Experience on Human Cognitive Function and Mental Health. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2012, 1249, 118–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wilson, E.O. Biophilia; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1984. [Google Scholar]
- Kellert, S.R.; Wilson, E.O. The Biophilia Hypothesis; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 1995. [Google Scholar]
- McCormick, R. Does Access to Green Space Impact the Mental Well-Being of Children: A Systematic Review. J. Pediatr. Nurs. 2017, 37, 3–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vanaken, G.J.; Danckaerts, M. Impact of Green Space Exposure on Children’s and Adolescents’ Mental Health: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Norwood, M.F.; Lakhani, A.; Fullagar, S.; Maujean, A.; Downes, M.; Byrne, J.; Stewart, A.; Barber, B.; Kendall, E. A Narrative and Systematic Review of the Behavioural, Cognitive and Emotional Effects of Passive Nature Exposure on Young People: Evidence for Prescribing Change. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2019, 189, 71–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Y.; Mavoa, S.; Zhao, J.; Raphael, D.; Smith, M. The Association between Green Space and Adolescents Mental Well-Being: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tillmann, S.; Clark, A.F.; Gilliland, J.A. Children and Nature: Linking Accessibility of Natural Environments and Children’s Health-Related Quality of Life. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1072. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Mygind, L.; Hartmeyer, R.D.; Mygind, E. Mental, Physical and Social Health Benefits of Immersive Nature-Experience for Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Quality Assessment of the Evidence. Health Place 2019, 58, 102–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ulrich, R.S.; Simons, R.F.; Losito, B.D.; Fiorito, E.; Miles, M.A.; Zelson, M. Stress Recovery during Exposure to Natural and Urban Environments. J. Environ. Psychol. 1991, 11, 201–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bratman, G.N.; Young, G.; Mehta, A.; Lee Babineaux, I.; Daily, G.C.; Gross, J.J. Affective Benefits of Nature Contact: The Role of Rumination. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ulrich, R. Natural Versus Urban Scenes: Some Psychophysiological Effects. Environ. Behav. 1981, 13, 523–556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ulrich, R.S. Aesthetic and Affective Response to Natural Environment. Behav. Nat. Environ. 1983, 85–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Corazon, S.S.; Sidenius, U.; Poulsen, D.V.; Gramkow, M.C.; Stigsdotter, U.K. Psycho-Physiological Stress Recovery in Outdoor Nature-Based Interventions: A Systematic Review of the Past Eight Years of Research. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1711. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Largo-Wight, E.; William Chen, W.; Dodd, V.; Weiler, R. Healthy Workplaces: The Effects of Nature Contact at Work on Employee Stress and Health. Public Health Rep. 2011, 126, 124–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Antonelli, M.; Donelli, D.; Carlone, L.; Maggini, V.; Firenzuoli, F.; Bedeschi, E. Effects of Forest Bathing (Shinrin-Yoku) on Individual Well-Being: An Umbrella Review. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 2022, 32, 1842–1867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaplan, R.; Kaplan, S. The Experience of Nature A Psychological Perspective; Cambridge University Press: Melbourne, Australia, 1989. [Google Scholar]
- Kaplan, S. The Restorative Benefits of Nature: Toward an Integrative Framework. J. Environ. Psychol. 1995, 15, 169–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hartig, T.; Mang, M.; Evans, G.W. Restorative Effects of Natural Environment Experiences. Environ. Behav. 1991, 23, 3–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stevenson, M.P.; Schilhab, T.; Bentsen, P. Attention Restoration Theory II: A Systematic Review to Clarify Attention Processes Affected by Exposure to Natural Environments. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part B Crit. Rev. 2018, 21, 227–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Richardson, M.; Mcewan, K.; Sheffield, D. Joy and Calm: How an Evolutionary Functional Model of Affect Regulation Informs Positive Emotions in Nature. Evol. Psychol. Sci. 2016, 2, 308–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Richardson, M. Beyond Restoration: Considering Emotion Regulation in Natural Well-Being. Ecopsychology 2019, 11, 123–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bratman, G.N.; Olvera-Alvarez, H.A.; Gross, J.J. The Affective Benefits of Nature Exposure. Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass 2021, 15, e12630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnsen, S.Å.K.; Rydstedt, L.W. Active Use of the Natural Environment for Emotion Regulation. Eur. J. Psychol. 2013, 9, 798–819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Korpela, K.M.; Pasanen, T.; Repo, V.; Hartig, T.; Staats, H.; Mason, M.; Alves, S.; Fornara, F.; Marks, T.; Saini, S.; et al. Environmental Strategies of Affect Regulation and Their Associations with Subjective Well-Being. Front. Psychol. 2018, 9, 562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Owens, M.; Bunce, H.L.I. Nature-Based Meditation, Rumination and Mental Wellbeing. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 9118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bratman, G.N.; Daily, G.C.; Levy, B.J.; Gross, J.J. The Benefits of Nature Experience: Improved Affect and Cognition. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2015, 138, 41–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bratman, G.N.; Hamilton, J.P.; Hahn, K.S.; Daily, G.C.; Gross, J.J. Nature Experience Reduces Rumination and Subgenual Prefrontal Cortex Activation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2015, 112, 8567–8572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mcewan, K.; Giles, D.; Kotera, Y.; Basran, J.; Giles, D.; Clarke, F.J.; Kotera, Y.; Evans, G.; Terebenina, O.; Minou, L.; et al. A Pragmatic Controlled Trial of Forest Bathing Compared with Compassionate Mind Training in the UK: Impacts on Self-Reported Wellbeing and Heart Rate Variability. Sustainability 2021, 13, 1380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Han, K.T. A Reliable and Valid Self-Rating Measure of the Restorative Quality of Natural Environments. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2003, 64, 209–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Han, K.-T. A Review of Self-Report Scales on Restoration and/or Restorativeness in the Natural Environment. J. Leis. Res. 2018, 49, 151–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hartig, T.; Korpela, K.; Evans, G.W.; Gärling, T. A Measure of Restorative Quality in Environments. Scand. Hous. Plan. Res. 1997, 14, 175–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pearson, D.G.; Craig, T. The Great Outdoors? Exploring the Mental Health Benefits of Natural Environments. Front. Psychol. 2014, 5, 1178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Capaldi, C.A.; Dopko, R.L.; Zelenski, J.M. The Relationship between Nature Connectedness and Happiness: A Meta-Analysis. Front. Psychol. 2014, 5, 976. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shin, J.C.; Parab, K.V.; An, R.; Grigsby-Toussaint, D.S. Greenspace Exposure and Sleep: A Systematic Review. Environ. Res. 2020, 182, 109081. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nisbet, E.K.; Zelenski, J.M.; Grandpierre, Z. Mindfulness in Nature Enhances Connectedness and Mood. Ecopsychology 2019, 11, 81–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Djernis, D.; Lerstrup, I.; Poulsen, D.; Stigsdotter, U.; Dahlgaard, J.; O’toole, M. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Nature-Based Mindfulness: Effects of Moving Mindfulness Training into an Outdoor Natural Setting. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 3202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Choe, E.Y.; Jorgensen, A.; Sheffield, D. Does a Natural Environment Enhance the Effectiveness of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)? Examining the Mental Health and Wellbeing, and Nature Connectedness Benefits. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2020, 202, 103886. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Gordon, W.; Shonin, E.; Richardson, M. Mindfulness and Nature. Mindfulness 2018, 9, 1655–1658. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rogerson, M.; Wood, C.; Pretty, J.; Schoenmakers, P.; Bloomfield, D.; Barton, J. Regular Doses of Nature: The Efficacy of Green Exercise Interventions for Mental Wellbeing. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bélanger, M.; Gallant, F.; Doré, I.; O’Loughlin, J.L.; Sylvestre, M.P.; Abi Nader, P.; Larouche, R.; Gunnell, K.; Sabiston, C.M. Physical Activity Mediates the Relationship between Outdoor Time and Mental Health. Prev. Med. Reports 2019, 16, 101006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wood, C.; Gladwell, V.; Barton, J. A Repeated Measures Experiment of School Playing Environment to Increase Physical Activity and Enhance Self-Esteem in UK School Children. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e108701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Barton, J.; Bragg, R.; Pretty, J.; Roberts, J.; Wood, C. The Wilderness Expedition: An Effective Life Course Intervention to Improve Young People’s Well-Being and Connectedness to Nature. J. Exp. Educ. 2016, 39, 59–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jennings, V.; Bamkole, O. The Relationship between Social Cohesion and Urban Green Space: An Avenue for Health Promotion. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dimitrova, D.; Tilov, B.; Dzhambov, A. Social Cohesion Mediates the Association between Urban Greenspace and Mental Health in Youth. Eur. J. Public Health 2017, 27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Stanton, K.; Watson, D. Positive and Negative Affective Dysfunction in Psychopathology. Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass 2014, 8, 555–567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salleh, M.R. Life Event, Stress and Illness. Malays. J. Med. Sci. 2008, 15, 9–18. [Google Scholar]
- Grierson, A.B.; Hickie, I.B.; Naismith, S.L.; Scott, J. The Role of Rumination in Illness Trajectories in Youth: Linking Trans-Diagnostic Processes with Clinical Staging Models. Psychol. Med. 2016, 46, 2467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Alvaro, P.K.; Roberts, R.M.; Harris, J.K. A Systematic Review Assessing Bidirectionality between Sleep Disturbances, Anxiety, and Depression. Sleep 2013, 36, 1059–1068. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Olivos-Jara, P.; Segura-Fernández, R.; Rubio-Pérez, C.; Felipe-García, B. Biophilia and Biophobia as Emotional Attribution to Nature in Children of 5 Years Old. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ulrich, R.S. Biophilia, Biophobia, and Natural Landscapes Design Guidelines View Project Healthcare Architecture View Project. Biophilia Hypothesis 1993, 7, 73–137. [Google Scholar]
- Sugiyama, N.; Hosaka, T.; Takagi, E.; Numata, S. How Do Childhood Nature Experiences and Negative Emotions towards Nature Influence Preferences for Outdoor Activity among Young Adults? Landsc. Urban Plan. 2021, 205, 103971. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Page, M.J.; McKenzie, J.E.; Bossuyt, P.M.; Boutron, I.; Hoffmann, T.C.; Mulrow, C.D.; Shamseer, L.; Tetzlaff, J.M.; Akl, E.A.; Brennan, S.E.; et al. The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews. BMJ 2021, 372, n71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McKenzie, J.E.; Brennan, S.E.; Ryan, R.E.; Thomson, H.J.; Johnston, R.V.; Thomas, J. Defining the Criteria for Including Studies and How They Will Be Grouped for the Synthesis. In Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions; Higgins, J.P.T., Thomas, J., Chandler, J., Cumpston, M., Li, T., Page, M.J., Welch, V.A., Eds.; Cochrone: London, UK, 2019; pp. 33–65. [Google Scholar]
- Sawyer, S.M.; Azzopardi, P.S.; Wickremarathne, D.; Patton, G.C. The Age of Adolescence. Lancet Child Adolesc. Health 2018, 2, 223–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thomas, B.H.; Ciliska, D.; Dobbins, M.; Micucci, S. A Process for Systematically Reviewing the Literature: Providing the Research Evidence for Public Health Nursing Interventions. Worldviews Evid. Based Nurs. 2004, 1, 176–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Osgood, C.E.; Suci, G.J.; Tannenbaum, P.H. ;The Measurement of Meaning; University of Illinois Press: Champaign, IL, USA, 1957. [Google Scholar]
- Bielinis, E.; Lukowski, A.; Omelan, A.; Boiko, S.; Takayama, N.; Grebner, D.L. The Effect of Recreation in a Snow-Covered Forest Environment on the Psychological Wellbeing of Young Adults: Randomized Controlled Study. Forests 2019, 10, 827. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Greenwood, A.; Gatersleben, B. Let’s Go Outside! Environmental Restoration amongst Adolescents and the Impact of Friends and Phones. J. Environ. Psychol. 2016, 48, 131–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hassan, A.; Tao, J.; Li, G.; Jiang, M.; Aii, L.; Zhihui, J.; Zongfang, L.; Qibing, C. Effects of Walking in Bamboo Forest and City Environments on Brainwave Activity in Young Adults. Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2018, 2018, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bielinis, E.; Janeczko, E.; Takayama, N.; Zawadzka, A.; Słupska, A.; Piętka, S.; Lipponen, M.; Bielinis, L. The Effects of Viewing a Winter Forest Landscape with the Ground and Trees Covered in Snow on the Psychological Relaxation of Young Finnish Adults: A Pilot Study. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0244799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bielinis, E.; Omelan, A.; Boiko, S.; Bielinis, L. The Restorative Effect of Staying in a Broad-Leaved Forest on Healthy Young Adults in Winter and Spring. Balt. For. 2018, 24, 218–227. [Google Scholar]
- Bielinis, E.; Takayama, N.; Boiko, S.; Omelan, A.; Bielinis, L. The Effect of Winter Forest Bathing on Psychological Relaxation of Young Polish Adults. Urban For. Urban Green. 2018, 29, 276–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hartig, T.; Jamner, L.; Evans, G.W.; Jamner, L.D.; Davis, D.S.; Arling, T.G. Tracking Restoration in Natural and Urban Field Settings. Artic. J. Environ. Psychol. 2003, 23, 109–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, J.; Park, B.J.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Ohira, T.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. Effect of Forest Bathing on Physiological and Psychological Responses in Young Japanese Male Subjects. Public Health 2011, 125, 93–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, J.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Takayama, N.; Park, B.J.; Li, Q.; Song, C.; Komatsu, M.; Ikei, H.; Tyrväinen, L.; Kagawa, T.; et al. Influence of Forest Therapy on Cardiovascular Relaxation in Young Adults. Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2014, 2014, 834360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mao, G.X.; Lan, X.G.; Cao, Y.B.; Chen, Z.M.; He, Z.H.; Lv, Y.D.; Wang, Y.Z.; Hu, X.L.; Wang, G.F.; Yan, J. Effects of Short-Term Forest Bathing on Human Health in a Broad-Leaved Evergreen Forest in Zhejiang Province, China. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 2012, 25, 317–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Park, B.J.; Furuya, K.; Kasetani, T.; Takayama, N.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. Relationship between Psychological Responses and Physical Environments in Forest Settings. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2011, 102, 24–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Park, B.J.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Kasetani, T.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. The Physiological Effects of Shinrin-Yoku (Taking in the Forest Atmosphere or Forest Bathing): Evidence from Field Experiments in 24 Forests across Japan. Environ. Health Prev. Med. 2010, 15, 18–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Song, C.; Ikei, H.; Igarashi, M.; Miwa, M.; Takagaki, M.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological and Psychological Responses of Young Males during Spring-Time Walks in Urban Parks. J. Physiol. Anthropol. 2014, 33, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Song, C.; Ikei, H.; Igarashi, M.; Takagaki, M.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological and Psychological Effects of a Walk in Urban Parks in Fall. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 14216–14228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Song, C.; Joung, D.; Ikei, H.; Igarashi, M.; Aga, M.; Park, B.J.; Miwa, M.; Takagaki, M.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological and Psychological Effects of Walking on Young Males in Urban Parks in Winter. J. Physiol. Anthropol. 2013, 32, 18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Takayama, N.; Korpela, K.; Lee, J.; Morikawa, T.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Park, B.-J.; Li, Q.; Tyrväinen, L.; Miyazaki, Y.; Kagawa, T. Emotional, Restorative and Vitalizing Effects of Forest and Urban Environments at Four Sites in Japan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 11, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tsunetsugu, Y.; Lee, J.; Park, B.J.; Tyrväinen, L.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological and Psychological Effects of Viewing Urban Forest Landscapes Assessed by Multiple Measurements. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2013, 113, 90–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McAnally, H.M.; Robertson, L.A.; Hancox, R.J. Effects of an Outdoor Education Programme on Creative Thinking and Well-being in Adolescent Boys. N. Z. J. Educ. Stud. 2018, 53, 241–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fuegen, K.; Breitenbecher, K.H. AndWalking Being Outdoors in Nature Increase Positive Affect and Energy. Ecopsychology 2018, 10, 14–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shin, W.S.; Oh, H.K. The Influence of the Forest Program on Depression Level. J. Korean Soc. For. Sci. 1996, 85, 586–595. [Google Scholar]
- Wang, X.; Rodiek, S.; Wu, C.; Chen, Y.; Li, Y. Stress Recovery and Restorative Effects of Viewing Different Urban Park Scenes in Shanghai, China. Urban For. Urban Green. 2016, 15, 112–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wood, C.; Angus, C.; Pretty, J.; Sandercock, G.; Barton, J. A Randomised Control Trial of Physical Activity in a Perceived Environment on Self-Esteem and Mood in UK Adolescents. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 2013, 23, 311–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kelz, C.; Evans, G.W.; Röderer, K. The Restorative Effects of Redesigning the Schoolyard. Environ. Behav. 2015, 47, 119–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Scarf, D.; Hayhurst, J.G.; Riordan, B.C.; Boyes, M.; Ruffman, T.; Hunter, J.A. Increasing Resilience in Adolescents: The Importance of Social Connectedness in Adventure Education Programmes. Australas. Psychiatry 2017, 25, 154–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Scarf, D.; Moradi, S.; McGaw, K.; Hewitt, J.; Hayhurst, J.G.; Boyes, M.; Ruffman, T.; Hunter, J.A. Somewhere I Belong: Long-Term Increases in Adolescents’ Resilience Are Predicted by Perceived Belonging to the in-Group. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 2016, 55, 588–599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hayhurst, J.; Hunter, J.A.; Kafka, S.; Boyes, M. Enhancing Resilience in Youth through a 10-Day Developmental Voyage. J. Adventure Educ. Outdoor Learn. 2015, 15, 40–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hunter, J.A.; Hayhurst, J.; Kafka, S.; Boyes, M.; Ruffman, T.; O’Brien, K.; Stringer, M. Elevated Self-Esteem 12 Months Following a 10-Day Developmental Voyage. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2013, 43, 1956–1961. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McNair, D.M.; Lorr, M.; Droppleman, L.F. Manual for the Profile of Mood States; Educational and Industrial Testing Services: San Diego, CA, USA, 1971. [Google Scholar]
- Fiedler, K.; Schott, M.; Meiser, T. What Mediation Analysis Can (Not) Do. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 2011, 47, 1231–1236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McMahan, E.A.; Estes, D. The Effect of Contact with Natural Environments on Positive and Negative Affect: A Meta-Analysis. J. Posit. Psychol. 2015, 10, 507–519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bali, A.; Jaggi, A.S. Clinical Experimental Stress Studies: Methods and Assessment. Rev. Neurosci. 2015, 26, 555–579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kirschbaum, C.; Pirke, K.-M.; Hellhammer, D.H. The ’Trier Social Stress Test’-A Tool for Investigating Psychobiological Stress Responses in a Laboratory Setting. Neuropsychobiology 1993, 28, 76–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marselle, M.R.; Irvine, K.N.; Lorenzo-Arribas, A.; Warber, S.L. Does Perceived Restorativeness Mediate the Effects of Perceived Biodiversity and Perceived Naturalness on Emotional Well Being Following Group Walks in Nature? J. Environ. Psychol. 2016, 46, 217–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Browning, M.H.E.M.; Saeidi-Rizi, F.; McAnirlin, O.; Yoon, H.; Pei, Y. The Role of Methodological Choices in the Effects of Experimental Exposure to Simulated Natural Landscapes on Human Health and Cognitive Performance: A Systematic Review. Environ. Behav. 2020, 53, 687–731. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Putra, I.G.N.E.; Astell-Burt, T.; Cliff, D.P.; Vella, S.A.; John, E.E.; Feng, X. The Relationship Between Green Space and Prosocial Behaviour Among Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 859. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kazdin, A.E. Mediators and Mechanisms of Change in Psychotherapy Research. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007, 3, 1–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Mackinnon, D.; Luecken, L. How and for Whom? Mediation and Moderation in Health Psychology. Health Psychol. 2008, 27 (Suppl. S2), S101–S108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- De Vries, S.; van Dillen, S.M.E.; Groenewegen, P.P.; Spreeuwenberg, P. Streetscape Greenery and Health: Stress, Social Cohesion and Physical Activity as Mediators. Soc. Sci. Med. 2013, 94, 26–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dzhambov, A.; Hartig, T.; Markevych, I.; Tilov, B.; Dimitrova, D. Urban Residential Greenspace and Mental Health in Youth: Different Approaches to Testing Multiple Pathways Yield Different Conclusions. Environ. Res. 2018, 160, 47–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dzhambov, A.M.; Markevych, I.; Hartig, T.; Tilov, B.; Arabadzhiev, Z.; Stoyanov, D.; Gatseva, P.; Dimitrova, D.D. Multiple Pathways Link Urban Green- and Bluespace to Mental Health in Young Adults. Environ. Res. 2018, 166, 223–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Egner, L.E.; Sütterlin, S.; Calogiuri, G. Proposing a Framework for the Restorative Effects of Nature through Conditioning: Conditioned Restoration Theory. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6792. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Putra, I.G.N.E.; Astell-Burt, T.; Cliff, D.P.; Vella, S.A.; Feng, X. Association between Caregiver Perceived Green Space Quality and the Development of Prosocial Behaviour from Childhood to Adolescence: Latent Class Trajectory and Multilevel Longitudinal Analyses of Australian Children over 10 Years. J. Environ. Psychol. 2021, 74, 101579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fairchild, A.J.; McDaniel, H.L. Best (but Oft-Forgotten) Practices: Mediation Analysis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2017, 105, 1259–1271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kraemer, H.C.; Wilson, G.; Fairburn, C.G.; Agras, W.S. Mediators and Moderators of Treatment Effects in Randomized Clinical Trials. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2002, 59, 877–883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bratman, G.N.; Anderson, C.B.; Berman, M.G.; Cochran, B.; de Vries, S.; Flanders, J.; Folke, C.; Frumkin, H.; Gross, J.J.; Hartig, T.; et al. Nature and Mental Health: An Ecosystem Service Perspective. Sci. Adv. 2019, 5, eaax0903. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Key Word | Search Terms | |
---|---|---|
Nature | “contact with nature” OR “nature exposure” OR “exposure to nature” OR “natur * experience *” OR “access to nature” OR “green space *” OR greenspace OR greenery OR greenness OR forests OR “forest school” OR “shinrin yoku” OR “shinrin-yoku” OR “forest bathing” OR “forest environment” OR wilderness OR “blue space” OR park OR parks OR woodlands OR countryside OR “urban forest” OR “outdoor adventure interventions” OR “adventure therapy” OR gardening OR “natur * environment *” OR “outdoor adventure education” OR “adventure education” OR “adventure program” OR outdoors OR “green exercise” OR “nature therap *” OR “green play” OR “nature therap *” OR ecotherapy * OR “school landscape” | |
Mental Health | AND | “mental health” OR anxiety OR depress * OR mood OR well-being OR wellbeing OR well-being OR “strengths and difficulties” |
Adolescence | AND | Adolescen * OR teen * OR “young people” OR “young adult *” OR youth * |
PICOS | Inclusion Criteria | Exclusion Criteria |
---|---|---|
Population | Samples with an average age of 24 and under | |
Intervention | Exposure to all types of nature | A therapeutic intervention or intervention delivered by trained mental health professionals |
Comparison | All comparison groups | A lack of control group |
Outcomes | Changes in mental health and psychological status | |
Study Design | Experimental or quasi-experimental |
Paper number (#) | Authors (Year) | Country | N | Age in years Range (Mean ± SD) | Gender of Sample | Study Design | Nature Exposure (Experimental) | Comparison | Quality Rating |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Bielinis et al. (2019) [74] | Poland | 32 | (20.97 ± 0.65) | Female | Experimental | 20 min walk, 15 min exposure to snow covered forest | 20 min walk to uban environment | Mod |
2 | Greenwood & Gatersleben (2016) [75] | UK | 120 | 16–18 (-) | Mixed | Experimental | 20 min grassed quandrangle: alone, with friend, with phone | Indoor for 20 min | Weak |
3 | Hassan et al. (2018) [76] | China | 60 | 19–24 (19.60 ± 1.42) | Mixed | Cross-over experimental | 5 min rest, 15 min guided walk in bamboo forest | 5 min rest, 15 min guided walk in city area | Weak |
4 | Bielinis et al. (2021) [77] | Poland | 22 | (22.50 ± 4.67) | Mixed | Cross-over experimental | 15 min viewing in snow covered forest | 15 min viewing building landscape | Weak |
5 | Bielinis, Omelan et al. (2018) [78] | Poland | 54 | (21.35 ± 1.39) | Mixed | Experimental | 15 min viewing in forest in winter vs. spring | Urban setting in winter vs. in spring | Mod |
6 | Bielinis, Takayama et al. (2018) [79] | Poland | 62 | (21.45 ± 0.18) | Mixed | Experimental | 15 min walk, 15 min viewing in forest | 15 min in Urban environment | Mod |
7 | Hartig et al. (2003) [80] | USA | 112 | (20.8 ± 3.7) | Mixed | Experimental | Task vs. no task in vegetation and wildlife preserve | Task vs. no task in urban environment | Mod |
(#) | Authors (Year) | Country | N | Age in years Range (Mean ± SD) | Gender of Sample | Study Design | Nature Exposure (Experimental) | Comparison | Quality Rating |
8 | Lee et al. (2011) [81] | Japan | 12 | (21.20 ± 0.9) | Male | Cross-over experimental | 15 min forest viewing | 15 min urban viewing | Weak |
9 | Lee et al. (2014) [82] | Japan | 48 | (21.10 ± 1.2) | Male | Cross-over experimental | Forest walking and self-paced walking in forest | Urban walking and self-paced walking in urban environment | Weak |
10 | Mao et al. (2012) [83] | China | 20 | (20.79 ± 0.54) | Male | Experimental | 2 × 1.5 h walks in forest area | 2 × 1.5 h walks in city area | Weak |
11 | Park et al. (2011) [84] | Japan | 168 | (20.40 ± 4.1) | Male | Cross-over experimental | 15 min viewing, 15 min walk in forest (14 forests) | 15 min viewing, 15 min walk in urban area (14 areas) | Weak |
12 | Park et al. (2010) [85] | Japan | 280 | (21.70 ± 1.5) | Male | Cross-over experimental | 15 min viewing, 15 min walk in forest (24 forests) | 15 min viewing, 15 min walk in urban area (24 areas) | Weak |
13 | Song et al. (2014) [86] | Japan | 17 | (21.20 ± 1.7) | Male | Cross-over experimental | 15 min walk in urban park | 15 min walk in city area | Weak |
14 | Song et al. (2015) [87] | Japan | 23 | (22.3 ± 1.2) | Male | Cross-over experimental | 15 min walk in urban park | 15 min walk in city area | Weak |
15 | Song et al. (2013) [88] | Japan | 13 | (22.50 ± 3.1) | Male | Cross-over experimental | 15 min walk in urban park | 15 min walk in city area | Weak |
16 | Takayama et al. (2011) [89] | Japan | 45 | (21.21 ± 1.25) | Male | Cross-over experimental | 15 min walk (morning), 15 min viewing (afternoon) in forest | 15 min walk (morning), 15 min viewing (afternoon) in urban area | Mod |
(#) | Authors (Year) | Country | N | Age in years Range (Mean ± SD) | Gender of Sample | Study Design | Nature Exposure (Experimental) | Comparison | Quality Rating |
17 | Tsunetsugu et al. (2013) [90] | Japan | 48 | (21.10 ± 1.1) | Male | Cross-over experimental | 15 min viewing in forest | 15 min viewing urban site | Mod |
18 | McAnally et al. (2018) [91] | New Zealand | 106 | (14.43) | Male | Quasi-experimental | 2 terms of outdoor education | Education as usual | Weak |
19 | Fuegen & Breitenbecher (2018) [92] | USA | 108 | 17–75 (21.59 ± 7.69) | Mixed | Experimental | Outdoor exercise and outdoor rest (university grounds) | Indoor exercise vs. indoor rest (simulated) | Mod |
20 | Shin & Oh (1996) [93] | Korea | 32 | 18–32 (23.13) | Mixed | Quasi-experimental | 5-day forest program | Wait list control | Weak |
21 | Wang et al. (2016) [94] | China | 140 | 18–24 (22.38 ± 2.56) | Mixed | Experimental | Exposure to video tapes of urban parks during stress recovery | Video tapes of urban roadways | Mod |
22 | Wood et al. (2013) [95] | UK | 25 | (13.10 + 0.3) | Mixed | Cross-over experimental | Exercise whilst viewing outdoor natural scene | Exercise viewing built up environment | Mod |
23 | Kelz et al., (2015) [96] | Austria | 195 | 10–18 (14.40) | Mixed | Quasi-experimental | Access to green schoolyard | Control schools | Mod |
24 | Scarf et al. (2017) [97] | New Zealand | 180 | (16.54) | Mixed | Quasi-experimental | 10-day developmental voyage on a ship | Education as usual | Weak |
25 | Scarf et al. (2016) [98] | New Zealand | 180 | 15–19 (16.56) | Mixed | Quasi-experimental | 10-day developmental voyage on a ship | Education as usual (but two different groups at T1 and T4) | Mod |
(#) | Authors (Year) | Country | N | Age in years Range (Mean ± SD) | Gender of Sample | Study Design | Nature Exposure (Experimental) | Comparison | Quality Rating |
26 | Hayhurst et al. (2015) [99] | New Zealand | (1): 120 (2): 146 | (1): (17.98) (2):(16.47) | Mixed | Quasi-experimental | 10-day developmental voyage on a ship | No voyage | Weak |
27 | Hunter et al. (2013) [100] | New Zealand | (1): 62 (2): 396 | (1): (16.46)(2): (16.62) | Mixed | Quasi-experimental | 10-day developmental voyage on a ship | Education as usual | Weak |
Paper number (#) | Authors | Outcomes | Significant Results |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Bielinis et al. (2019). [74] | Tension/Anxiety (POMS) | Decreased after exposure to snow-covered forest environment compared to urban forest environment (F = 18.06, p = 0.000, η2 = 0.37). |
Depression/Dejection (POMS) | Decreased after exposure to snow-covered forest environment compared to urban forest environment (F = 7.315, p = 0.011, η2 = 0.20) | ||
Anger/Hostility (POMS) | Decreased after exposure to snow-covered forest environment compared to urban forest environment (F = 16.198, p = 0.000, η2 = 0.35) | ||
Confusion (POMS) | Decreased after exposure to snow-covered forest environment compared to urban forest environment (F = 9.172, p = 0.005, η2 = 0.23) | ||
Negative affect (PANAS) | Increased after exposure to the Urban environment compared to forest environment (F = 4.999, p = 0.033, η2 = 0.14) | ||
Restoration (Restorative Outcome Scale) | Increased after exposure to the forest environment compared to urban environment (F = 8.885, p = 0.006, η2 = 0.23) | ||
Vitality (Subjective Vitality Scale) | Increased after exposure to the forest environment compared to urban environment (F = 4.527, p = 0.042, η2 = 0.13) | ||
5 | Bielinis et al. (2018a) [78] | Tension/Anxiety (POMS) | Significant effect of experimental interventions (F = 7.47, p < 0.001). Lowest values observed in forest in the winter. |
Depression/Dejection (POMS) | Significant effect of experimental interventions (F = 5.49, p < 0.001). Lowest values observed in forest in the winter. | ||
Anger/Hostility (POMS) | Significant effect of experimental interventions (F = 4.25, p < 0.001) Lowest values observed in forest in the winter. | ||
Fatigue (POMS) | Significant effect of experimental interventions (F = 4.79, p < 0.001). Lowest values observed in forest winter and forest spring interventions. | ||
Confusion (POMS) | Significant effect of experimental interventions (F = 5.18, p < 0.001). Lowest values observed in forest in the winter. | ||
(#) | Authors | Outcomes | Significant Results |
Bielinis et al. (2018a) [78] cont. | Vigour (POMS) | Significant effect of experimental interventions (F = 4.96, p < 0.001). Values were significantly higher in the forest environment during the winter than in the room or city conditions. | |
Positive Affect (PANAS) | Significant effect of experimental interventions (F = 4.34, p < 0.001)Significantly higher in the forest environment during both seasons. | ||
Restoration (Restorative Outcome Scale) | Significant effect of experimental interventions (F = 6.31, p < 0.001). Highest values were observed in the forest during the winter and during the spring, but during the winter they were significantly higher than during the spring | ||
Vitality (Subjective Vitality Scale) | Significant effect of experimental interventions (F = 5.37, p < 0.001). Values in the forest during the winter were significantly higher than during the spring, or in the room, or the city conditions. | ||
6 | Bielinis et al. (2018b) [79] | Tension/Anxiety (POMS) | Significantly lower scores observed in the forest vs. urban environment (F = 45.49, p = 0.000). |
Depression/Dejection (POMS) | Significantly lower scores observed in the forest vs. urban environment (F = 22.09, p = 0.000). | ||
Anger/Hostility (POMS) | Significantly lower scores observed in the forest vs. urban environment (F = 25.35, p = 0.000). | ||
Fatigue (POMS) | Significantly lower scores observed in the forest vs. urban environment (F = 28.1, p = 0.000). | ||
Confusion (POMS) | Significantly lower scores observed in the forest vs. urban environment (F = 20.3, p = 0.000). | ||
Vigour (POMS) | Significantly higher scores observed in the forest vs. urban environment (F = 28.35, p = 0.000). | ||
Positive Affect (PANAS) | Significantly higher scores observed in the forest vs. urban environment (F = 17.01, p = 0.000). | ||
Negative Affect (PANAS) | Significantly higher scores observed in the urban vs. forest environment (F = 15.18, p = 0.000). | ||
Restoration (Restorative Outcome Scale) | Significantly higher scores observed in the forest vs. urban environment (F = 35.27, p = 0.000). | ||
Vitality (Subjective Vitality Scale) | Significantly higher scores observed in the forest vs. urban environment (F = 27.68, p = 0.000). | ||
7 | Hartig et al. (2003) [80] | Diastolic Blood Pressure | Subjects with tree views showed significantly steeper DBP declines than the subjects in a viewless room (F(2, 180) = 4.74, p = 0.01) |
Systolic Blood Pressure | A significant environment X time interaction in the analysis of the readings at 20, 30, 40, and 50 min (F(3, 249) = 2.94, p = 0.04). | ||
Emotion (Zucker’s Inventory of Personal Reactions) emotion | Subjects walking in the nature reserve experienced more positive emotion than those walking in the urban environment (F(1, 49) = 7.40, p = 0.01). | ||
Positive Affect (PANAS) | Positive affect increased at the nature reserve and decreased in the urban environment (F(1, 100) = 56.83, p < 0.001). | ||
(#) | Authors | Outcomes | Significant Results |
Hartig et al. (2003) [80] cont. | Attention (Necker Cube Pattern Control Task) | Performance improved in the natural environment but suffered in the urban environment, regardless of antecedent condition. (F(1, 98) = 13.15, p < 0.001). | |
16 | Takayama et al. (2011) [89] | Tension/Anxiety (POMS) | Significantly lower in the forest environment than in the urban areas (p < 0.000). |
Fatigue (POMS) | Significantly lower in the forest environment than in the urban areas (p = 0.000). | ||
Confusion (POMS) | Significantly lower in the forest environment than in the urban areas (p = 0.000). | ||
Vigour (POMS) | Significantly higher in the forest environment after the viewing session (p = 0.000). | ||
Positive Affect (PANAS) | Significantly higher in the forest environment than in the urban areas (p = 0.001). | ||
Negative Affect (PANAS) | Significantly lower in the forest environment than in the urban areas (p < 0.000). | ||
Restoration (Restorative Outcome Scale) | Significantly higher in the forest environment than in the urban areas (p < 0.000). | ||
Vitality (Subjective Vitality Scale) | Significantly higher in the forest environment after walking (p < 0.000) and after the combined effect of walking and viewing (p < 0.000). | ||
17 | Tsunetsugu et al. (2013) [90] | Diastolic Blood Pressure | Significantly lower in the forested areas than in the urban areas (p = 0.034, η2p = 0.10). |
Heart Rate Variability (High Frequency) | Continuously significantly higher in the forested areas (p < 0.01, d = 0.31–0.70). | ||
Heart Rate | Significantly lower in the forested area during every minute of viewing than in the urban areas (p < 0.01, d = 0.49–0.71). | ||
Tension/Anxiety (POMS) | Significantly increased when viewing the scenery in urban areas (p = 0.00, η2p = 0.22). | ||
Fatigue (POMS) | Significantly increased when viewing the scenery in urban areas (p = 0.00, η2p = 0.35). | ||
Confusion (POMS) | Significantly increased when viewing the scenery in urban areas (p = 0.01, η2p = 0.35). | ||
Vigour (POMS) | Significantly decreased when viewing the scenery in urban areas (p = 0.00, η2p = 0.26). | ||
19 | Fuegen & Breitenbecher (2018) [92] | Positive Affect (PANAS) | Participants whose sessions took place outdoors experienced a slight increase in positive affect (F(1, 171) = 22.54, p < 0.001, η2p= 0.12). |
Energy (AD-ACL) | Participants whose sessions took place outdoors experienced an increase in energy (F(1, 174) = 18.99, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.10). | ||
Tiredness (AD-ACL) | Participants whose sessions took place outside experienced a decrease in tiredness (F(1, 175) = 12.10, p = 0.001, η2p = 0.07). | ||
21 | Wang et al. (2016) [94] | Skin Conductance | Significant differences scenes (χ2(6) = 22.379, p = 0.001, η2= 0.16). Compared with viewing the Urban Roadway, subjects’ mean SCR values were significantly reduced by viewing Lawn w/people (p = 0.005), Lawn w/o people (p = 0.006), Small Lake (p = 0.022) and Walkway (p = 0.022). |
(#) | Authors | Outcomes | Significant Results |
Wang et al. (2016) [94] cont | Electrocardiogram (R-R intervals) | Significant effect of viewing different sites on length of R–R intervals (F (6, 126) = 2.499, p = 0.026, η2= 0.10).R–R intervals increased significantly more Lake (0.116 ± 0.06 s, p = 0.047), compared to viewing the Urban after viewing the Walkway (0.125 ± 0.06 s, p = 0.010) and Small Roadway (0.063 ± 0.06 s). | |
Attention (Digit Span Backwards) | Participants’ attentional levels improved significantly after watching Lawn with people (p < 0.001, d = 1.09), Lawn without people (p = 0.001, d = 0.97 ), Plaza without people: (p < 0.001, d = 1.17), Small Lake (p = 0.007, d = 0.58),Walkway (p = 0.001, d = 0.73) | ||
State Anxiety (State-trait Anxiety Inventory) | All six urban park scenes had a significant positive effect on state-anxiety relief, compared with the Urban Roadway scene (F(6, F(6, 133) = 11.59, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.31) | ||
Restoration (Perceived Restorativeness) | Significant differences among the seven scenes (F(6, 133) = 25.68, p < 0.001, η2= 0.54). All six urban park scenes were perceived as more restorative than the Urban Roadway scene (p < 0.001) | ||
23 | Kelz et al. (2015) [95] | Diastolic Blood Pressure | Significantly lower for the experimental school’s pupils at the second time of measurement compared with the mean of both times of the control school’s measurements and the experimental school’s first time of measurement (F(1, 184.3) = 15.46, p = 0.001, d = 0.41). |
Systolic Blood Pressure | Significantly lower for the experimental school’s pupils at the second time of measurement compared with the mean of both times of the control school’s measurements and the experimental school’s first time of measurement (F(1, 175.4) = 5.14, p = 0.025, d = 0.23). | ||
Wellbeing (Intro-psychic Balance) | Pupils from the school had significantly higher scores after the installation of the schoolyard compared with the mean of both times of measurement at the control school and the first time of measurement at the experimental school. (F(1, 175.4) = 5.14, p = 0.025, d = 0.23). | ||
Wellbeing (Recovery-stress Questionnaire) | Pupils from the school had significantly higher scores after the installation of the schoolyard compared with the mean of both times of measurement at the control school and the first time of measurement at the experimental school. (F(1, 172.3) = 3.78, p = 0.053, d = 0.18). | ||
Restoration (Perceived Restorativeness) | Perceived restoration increased pre- to post-renovation for measures of compatibility only (t(62) = 3.86, p = 0.001, d = 0.48). | ||
(#) | Authors | Outcomes | Significant Results |
25 | Scarf et al. (2016) [98] | Resilience (Resilience Scale) | Significantly improved overtime (F(1, 59) = 102.54, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.63). |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Rowley, M.; Topciu, R.; Owens, M. A Systematic Review of Mechanisms Underpinning Psychological Change Following Nature Exposure in an Adolescent Population. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12649. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912649
Rowley M, Topciu R, Owens M. A Systematic Review of Mechanisms Underpinning Psychological Change Following Nature Exposure in an Adolescent Population. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12649. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912649
Chicago/Turabian StyleRowley, Megan, Raluca Topciu, and Matthew Owens. 2022. "A Systematic Review of Mechanisms Underpinning Psychological Change Following Nature Exposure in an Adolescent Population" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12649. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912649