Inequality of Low Air Quality-Related Health Impacts among Socioeconomic Groups in the World of Work
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. The Study Area
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Economic and Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents
3.2. Socio-Economic Groups’ Perceptions of Air Quality in Bangkok
3.3. Low Air Quality-Related Health Symptoms among Urban Working Locations
3.4. Low Air Quality-Related Health Symptoms among Different Socio-Economic Groups
3.5. Factors Influencing Declared Health Symptoms among Socio-Economic Groups
4. Discussion
4.1. Symmetry and Asymmetry between Air Quality-Monitoring Data and Different Socio-Economic Groups’ Health Symptoms and Perception of Air Quality
4.2. Inequalities of Low Air Quality-Related Health Impacts among Socioeconomic Groups in the World of Work
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Categories (Codes) * | Respondent Number | Respondents % |
---|---|---|
Gender | ||
Female (0) | 228 | 57.00% |
Male (1) | 172 | 43.00% |
Working age groups | ||
15–30 (0) | 103 | 25.80% |
31–45 (1) | 171 | 42.80% |
Over 45 (2) | 126 | 31.50% |
Education | ||
Illiterate (0) | 0 | 0.00% |
Primary school (1) | 31 | 34.40% |
Secondary school (2) | 45 | 50.00% |
High school (3) | 12 | 13.30% |
Bachelor level (4) | 2 | 2.20% |
Jobs | ||
Office worker (0) | 66 | 16.50% |
Street vendors (1) | 112 | 28.00% |
Factory and construction worker (2) | 86 | 21.50% |
Farmer/fishermen (3) | 61 | 15.30% |
Service provider (4) | 75 | 18.80% |
Work environment | ||
Outdoor (0) | 153 | 38.30% |
Indoor (1) | 247 | 61.80% |
Types of employment | ||
Informal (0) | 164 | 41.00% |
Formal (1) | 236 | 59.00% |
Income (bath) | ||
5000–10,000 baht | 72 | 18.00% |
10,000–15,000 baht | 251 | 62.75% |
15,000–20,000 baht | 77 | 19.25% |
Working locations | ||
Town or community (0) | 7 | 1.75% |
Industrial area (1) | 20 | 5.00% |
Slum area (2) | 27 | 6.75% |
Close to markets (3) | 75 | 18.75% |
Near the street or highway (4) | 227 | 56.75% |
Working locations | ||
Town or community (0) | 115 | 28.75% |
Industrial area (1) | 10 | 2.50% |
Slum area (2) | 143 | 35.75% |
Close to markets (3) | 12 | 3.00% |
Near the street or highway (4) | 120 | 30.00% |
Chronic Cough | Wheezing (Except Colds) | Multiple Colds | Shortness of Breath | Nasal Congestion | Sinus | Sore Throat | Hoarse Throat | Migraine | Headaches | Burning Eyes | Sneezing Attacks | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Districts | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) |
Thon Buri a | ||||||||||||
Bang Khun Thain | −0.022 (0.04) | −0.017 (0.04) | −0.029 (0.07) | −0.089 (0.07) | −0.308 (0.14) * | −0.078 (0.09) | −0.056 (0.08) | 0.042 (0.11) | 0.066 (0.09) | −0.497 (0.14) ** | 0.417 (0.13) *** | 0.438 (0.12) *** |
Klong Toei | 0.017 (0.03) | 0.023 (0.03) | 0.077 (0.05) | 0.047 (0.04) | 0.080 (0.09) | −0.009 (0.06) | 0.139 (0.06) * | 0.122 (0.070 | 0.126 (0.06) * | −0.199 (0.10) * | 0..014 (0.09) | 0.120 (0.08) |
Nong Chok | 0.079 (0.04) | 0.026 (0.04) | 0.243 (0.07) *** | 0.100 (0.07) | −0.028 (0.14) | −0.073 (0.09) | 0.177 (0.8) * | 0.251 (0.10) * | 0.152 (0.09) | −0.346 (0.14) * | 0.340 (0.13) *** | 0.337 (0.12) ** |
Din Daeng | 0.000 (0.09) | 0.021 (0.08) | 0.016 (0.06) | 0.004 (0.06) | −0.084 (0.12) | −0.007 (0.08) | −0.039 (0.08) | 0.186 (0.09) * | 0.079 (0.08) | −0.150 (0.13) | 0.214 (0.03) | 0.681 (0.11) *** |
Working location | ||||||||||||
Town and community a | ||||||||||||
Industrial zone | 0.002 (0.04) | 0.000 (0.04) | −0.061 (0.07) | −0.022 (0.07) | 0.066 (0.14) | −0.026 (0.09) | 0.086 (0.09) | −0.029 (0.11) | −0.135 (0.09) | −0.184 (0.15) | 0.264 (0.13) * | 0.292 (0.12) * |
Slum areas | 0.013 (0.04) | 0.003 (0.04) | 0.040 (0.06) | −0.002 (0.06) | 0.055 (012) | 0.031 (0.08) | 00.080 (0.08) | 0.056 (0.09) | −0.117 (0.08) | 0.050 (0.13) | 0.091 (0.12) | 0.113 (0.11) |
Close to market | 0.034 (0.04) | 0.042 (0.03) | 0.053 (0.05) | 0.036 (0.05) | 0.003 (0.11) | 0.055 (0.07) | 0.080 (0.07) | 0.059 (0.09) | −0.134 (0.07) | −0.033 (0.12) | 0.002 (0.10) | 0.143 (0.10) |
Close to street/highways | 0.020 (0.03) | 0.000 (0.03) | −0.026 (0.05) | 0.012 (0.05) | −0.016 (0.10) | 0.050 (0.07) | 0.105 (0.06) | 0.082 (0.08) | −0.077 (0.07) | −0.120 (0.110 | 0.117 (0.100) | 0.236 (0.09) ** |
Living location | ||||||||||||
Town and community a | ||||||||||||
Industrial zone | −0.060 (0.11) | 0–0.023 (0.10) | −0.138 (0.017) | −0.059 (0.17) | −0.308 (0.36) | −0.010 (0.23) | −0.109 (0.22) | −0.236 (0.27) | −0.064 (0.24) | −0.062 (0.37) | 0.062 (0.33) | −0.148 (0.31) |
Slum areas | −0.02 (0.03)) | −0.022 (0.03) | 0.051 (0.05) | −0.015 (0.05) | 0.129 (0.10) | −0.042 (0.07) | 0.033 (0.06) | −0.002 (0.08) | −0.015 (0.07) | 0.115 (0.11) | 0.047 (0.10) | −0.040 (0.09) |
Close to market | −0.018 (0.09) | (−0.011 (0.08) | −0.011 (0.013) | −0.007 (0.13) | 0.398 (0.28) | −0.087 (0.18) | 0.028 (0.17) | −0.016 (0.21) | −0.109 (0.18) | −0.345 (0.29) | 0.011 ((0.26) | 0.119 (0.24) |
Close to street/highways | −0.041 (0.04) | 0.007 (0.03) | −0.036 (0.06) | 0.004 (0.06) | −0.009 (0.12) | −0.002 (0.08) | 0.047 (0.07) | −0.042 (0.09) | −0.028 (0.08) | 0.040 (0.12) | 0.021 (0.11) | −0.094 (0.10) |
Age | 0.001 (0.00) | 0.000 (0.00) | 0.000 (0.00) | −0.001 (0.00) | 0.006 (0.00) * | −0.002 (0.00) | 0.001 (0.00) | 0.003 (0.00) | −0.003 (0.00) | 0.003 (0.00) | 0.000 (0.00) | 0.003 (0.00) |
Gender | ||||||||||||
Female a | ||||||||||||
Male | 0.004 (0.02) | 0.000 (0.01) | −0.040 (0.03) | −0.030 (0.03) | 0.100 (0.05) | 0.003 (0.03) | −0.046 (0.03) | −0.067 (0.04) | 0.007 (0.03) | −0.010 (0.05) | −0.017 (0.5) | −0.006 (0.4) |
Work environment | ||||||||||||
Informal job a | ||||||||||||
Indoor job | 0.021 (0.02) | 0.033 (0.02) | 0.05 (0.03)) | 0.018 (0.03) | 0.140 (0.07) * | −0.021 (0.05) | 0.010 (0.04) | −0.001 (0.05) | 0.044 (0.05) | 0.092 (0.07) | −0.114 (0.07) | 0.030 (0.06) |
Types of employment sectors | ||||||||||||
Informal sector work a | ||||||||||||
Formal sector work | −0.056 (0.03) * | −0.045 (0.02) * | −0.101 (0.04) * | −0.113 (0.04) *** | −0.223 (0.08) *** | −0.146 (0.05) ** | −0.021 90.05) | −0.111 (0.06) | −0.072 (0.05) | −0.126 (0.08) | −0.109 (0.07) | −0.217 (0.07) ** |
Income | 0.000 (0.02) | 0.000 (0.00) | 0.000 (0.00) | 0.000 (0.00) | 0.000 (0.00) | 0.000 (0.00) | 0.000 (0.00) | 0.000 (0.00) | 0.000 (0.00) | 0.000 (0.00) | 0.000 (0.00) | 0.000 (0.00) |
Education | 0.009 (0.01) | −0.015 (0.01) | 0.010 (0.02) | −0.020 (0.02) | 0.046 (0.03) | −0.014 (0.02) | −0.008 90.02) | −0.003 (0.03) | −0.020 (0.020 | 0.016 (0.04) | 0.033 (0.03) | 0.044 (0.03) |
Job types | ||||||||||||
Office worker a | ||||||||||||
Street seller | 0.012 (0.02) | −0.014 (.02) | 0.013 (0.04) | 0.022 (0.04) | 0.002 (0.08) | 0.107 (0.05) * | 0.002 (0.05) | −0.057 (0.06) | −0.001 (0.05) | −0.069 (0.08) | 0.109 (0.7) | −0.097 (0.07) |
Factory/ Construction worker | 0.062 (0.03) * | 0.018 (0.02) | 0.085 (0.04) * | 0.077 (0.04) | 0.023 (0.09) | 0.126 (0.06) * | 0.101 (0.05) | 0.037 (0.07) | −0.007 (0.06) | −0.200 (0.09) * | 0.186 (0.8) * | 0.016 (0.07) |
Farmer | 0.02 (0.04)) | 0.008 (0.04) | 0.006 (0.06) | 0.083 (0.06) | 0.050 (0.13) | 0.162 (0.08) * | 0.138 (0.08) | −0.042 (0.10) | 0.102 (0.08) | −0.079 (0.13) | 0.289 (0.12) * | −0.131 (0.11) |
Service provider | 0.020 (0.03) | 0.054 (0.02) * | 0.068 (0.04) | 0.055 (0.04) | 0.123 (0.09) | 0.034 (0.06) | 0.182 (0.08) *** | 0.075 (0.07) | −0.000 (0.06) | −0.096 (0.09) | 0.204 (0.8) * | 0.019 (0.08) |
_cons | −0.019 (0.09) | 0.008 (0.08) | 0.032 (0.13) | 0.075 (0.013) | 0.130 (0.27) | 0.167 (0.17) | −0.152 (0.16) | 0.008 (0.20) | 0.217 (0.18) | 0.786 (0.28) * | −0.188 (0.25) | 0.128 (0.23) |
N | 400 | 400 | 400 | 400 | 400 | 400 | 400 | 400 | 400 | 400 | 400 | 400 |
Parms | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 |
RMSE | 0.146 | 0.130 | 0.223 | 0.220 | 0.459 | 0.298 | 0.279 | 0.350 | 0.303 | 0.475 | 0.427 | 0.395 |
R-sq | 0.090 | 0.071 | 0.200 | 0.121 | 0.093 | 0.068 | 0.182 | 0.142 | 0.079 | 0.110 | 0.296 | 0.411 |
F | 1.689 | 1.318 | 4.277 | 2.359 | 1.760 | 1.250 | 3.813 | 2.837 | 1.463 | 2.128 | 7.212 | 11.933 |
p-value | 0.028* | 0.155 | 0.000 *** | 0.001 *** | 0.019 * | 0.202 | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** | 0.083 | 0.003 *** | 0.000 | 0.000 *** |
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Nguyen, T.P.L.; Virdis, S.G.P.; Winjikul, E. Inequality of Low Air Quality-Related Health Impacts among Socioeconomic Groups in the World of Work. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12980. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912980
Nguyen TPL, Virdis SGP, Winjikul E. Inequality of Low Air Quality-Related Health Impacts among Socioeconomic Groups in the World of Work. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12980. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912980
Chicago/Turabian StyleNguyen, Thi Phuoc Lai, Salvatore G. P. Virdis, and Ekbordin Winjikul. 2022. "Inequality of Low Air Quality-Related Health Impacts among Socioeconomic Groups in the World of Work" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12980. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912980