Supporting Tourism by Assessing the Predictors of COVID-19 Vaccination for Travel Reasons
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Study
- Research Question 1: How likely are individuals to get the COVID-19 vaccine if that the vaccine would facilitate their travel?
- Research Question 2: What are the predictors of vaccination for travel reasons? We expected sociodemographic characteristics, vaccination status, perceived risk of severity of disease at the destination, conspiracy beliefs, beliefs of safety and efficacy of vaccines, and self-efficacy in controlling the disease to predict the intention to get vaccinated for travel.
- Research Question 3: What are the differences between vaccinated and unvaccinated participants regarding travel intention, avoidance, and cautious travel? We expected that vaccinated individuals intend to travel more and are less avoidant than unvaccinated participants.
- Research Question 4: What are the differences between individuals that are vaccinated against COVID-19 and those who are not regarding travel-related cognitive factors (perceived risk of infection and transmission of infection, perceived severity, self-efficacy beliefs, conspiracy beliefs, and beliefs of safety and efficacy of vaccines) during the pandemic? We predicted that vaccinated participants will perceive greater risk and severity related to COVID-19 and safety of vaccines while they will believe less in conspiracy beliefs.
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Construct Measures
3.1.1. Demographic Information
3.1.2. Vaccination Due to Travel Reasons
3.1.3. Perceived Risk of Infection and of Transmitting the Infection
3.1.4. Knowledge of COVID-19 at Travel Destination
3.1.5. Perceived Severity of Infection at Destination
3.1.6. Travel-Related Measures
3.1.7. Self-Efficacy for Controlling SARS-CoV-2 Infection
3.1.8. Beliefs about Vaccine Safety and Efficacy in Preventing SARS-CoV-2 Infection
3.1.9. The COVID-19 Conspiracy Beliefs Scale
3.2. Data Collection
3.3. Data Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Demographics
4.2. The Intent to Vaccinate against COVID-19 Due to Travel Reasons (Research Question 1)
4.3. Predictors of COVID-19 Intention to Vaccinate for Travel (Research Question 2)
4.4. Travel Intention, Avoidance, and Cautious Travel in Vaccinated vs. Unvaccinated Respondents (Research Question 3)
4.5. Perceived Risk and Severity of Infection during Travel, Vaccine Efficacy, Conspiracy Beliefs, and Self-Efficacy Beliefs in Vaccinated vs. Unvaccinated Respondents (Research Question 4)
5. General Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Frequency | % | |
---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 0–18 | - | - |
19–30 | 51 | 46.4% | |
31–45 | 47 | 42.7% | |
45–60 | 11 | 10.0% | |
60+ | - | - | |
Gender (F/M, n, %) | Male | 25 | 31.8% |
Female | 75 | 68.2% | |
Education (years of study) | High-school | 27 | 24.5% |
Undergraduate | 41 | 37.3% | |
Postgraduate | 41 | 37.3% | |
Income | <250 EUR | 34 | 30.9% |
250–450 EUR | 17 | 15.5% | |
450–900 EUR | 34 | 30.9% | |
>900 EUR | 25 | 22.7% | |
Employment | Employed | 64 | 52.8% |
Not employed | 4 | 3.6% | |
Not employed due to pandemic | 3 | 2.7% | |
Student | 33 | 30.0% | |
Retired | 1 | 0.9% | |
Self-employed | 5 | 4.5% | |
Infection and vaccination status | Being infected with coronavirus | 23 | 20.9% |
Having family, neighbors or close friends infected with coronavirus | 86 | 78.2% | |
Vaccinated against SARS-CoV-2 or programmed for vaccination | 50 | 45.5% | |
Knowledge of COVID-19 at travel destination | I don’t know about the existence of COVID-19 in the destination country | 15 | 13.6% |
COVID-19 is present in the destination country | 9 | 44.5% | |
COVID-19 is present in the destination city | 19 | 17.3% | |
COVID-19 is present in the destination area | 22 | 20.0% | |
Persons you know have been infected in the destination you visit | 2 | 1.8% | |
Close persons have been infected in the destination you visit | 3 | 2.7% | |
Perceived risk for self | High and very high | 6 | 5.4% |
Medium | 46 | 41.8% | |
Low and very low | 58 | 52.7% | |
Perceived risk for others | High and very high | 30 | 27.3% |
Medium | 33 | 30.0% | |
Low and very low | 47 | 42.8% | |
Perceived severity for self | High and very high | 16 | 14.6% |
Medium | 31 | 28.2% | |
Low and very low | 63 | 57.3% | |
Mean | SD | ||
Conspiracy beliefs | 1.93 | 1.83 | |
Intention to travel | 4.09 | 0.95 | |
Self-efficacy | 2.04 | 0.63 | |
Vaccine safety and efficacy beliefs | 12.08 | 4.87 |
Vaccination Status | Very Likely | Likely | Hard to Say | Unlikely | Very Unlikely |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vaccinated | 74% | 8% | 8% | 4% | 6% |
Unvaccinated | 5% | 20% | 20% | 10% | 45% |
Total | 36.4% | 14.5% | 14.5% | 7.3% | 27.3% |
Variables | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Vaccination intention | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
2. Perceived risk for self | 0.08 | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
3.Perceived risk for others | −0.03 | 0.53 * | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
4. Perceived severity for self | 0.01 | 0.43 * | 0.57 ** | 1 | - | - | - | - | - |
5. Self-efficacy | 0.24 * | 0.11 | −0.13 | −0.10 | 1 | - | - | - | - |
6. Vaccine safety and efficacy beliefs | 0.70 ** | 0.18 | 0.05 | 0.13 | 0.22 * | 1 | - | - | - |
7. Prior vaccination | 0.67 ** | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.03 | −0.14 | −0.59 ** | 1 | - | - |
8. Conspiracy beliefs | −0.60 ** | −0.10 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.14 ** | 0.61 ** | −0.56 ** | 1 | - |
9. Intention to Travel | 0.23 * | 0.06 | −0.09 | −0.15 | −0.14 | −0.15 ** | 0.09 ** | −0.20 * | 1 |
10. Cautious travel | 0.32 * | 0.42 ** | 0.25 * | 0.35 ** | −0.32 ** | −0.41 ** | 0.37 * | −0.34 ** | 0.07 |
Predictors | β | t | p | CI | Part Corr. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Linear Simple Regression Analyses for Main Predictors | Age | 0.46 | 2.08 | 0.03 | [0.02; 0.91] | 0.19 |
Gender | 0.25 | 0.75 | 0.45 | [−0.41; 0.92] | 0.07 | |
Perceived risk of infection for self | 0.16 | 0.90 | 0.36 | [−0.19; 0.51] | 0.08 | |
Perceived risk of transmitting the infection to others | −0.05 | −0.37 | 0.70 | [−0.32; 0.21] | −0.03 | |
Perceived severity of infection at TD | 0.01 | 0.10 | 0.91 | [−0.30; 0.34] | 0.01 | |
Knowledge of COVID-19 at TD | −0.02 | −0.18 | 0.85 | [−0.29; 0.24] | −0.01 | |
Vaccination status | 2.10 | 8.57 | 0.00 | [1.61; 2.58] | 0.63 | |
Conspiracy beliefs | −0.54 | −7.87 | 0.01 | [−0.68; −0.40] | −0.60 | |
Vaccine safety and efficacy beliefs | 0.23 | 10.25 | 0.00 | [0.19; 0.28] | 0.70 | |
Self-Efficacy | 0.63 | 2.57 | 0.01 | [0.14; 1.11] | 0.24 | |
Intention to travel | 0.40 | 2.53 | 0.13 | [0.08; 0.72] | 0.23 | |
Linear Multiple Regression Analysis Equation | Age | −0.12 | −0.74 | 0.45 | [−0.45; 0.20] | −0.04 |
Vaccination status | 1.03 | 3.57 | 0.01 | [0.45; 1.60] | 0.19 | |
Conspiracy beliefs | 0.13 | 1.83 | .069 | [−0.29; 0.01] | −0.11 | |
Vaccine safety and efficacy beliefs | 0.13 | 4.70 | 0.00 | [0.07; 0.19] | 0.29 | |
Self-Efficacy | 0.16 | 0.98 | 0.32 | [−0.50; 0.16] | 0.06 | |
Intention to Travel | 0.17 | 1.58 | 0.11 | [−0.04; 0.39] | 0.09 |
Variable | Perceived Risk of Infection for Self | Perceived Risk of Transmitting the Infection to Others | Perceived Severity of Infection | Self-Efficacy of Controlling COVID-19 Infection | Vaccine Safety and Efficacy Beliefs | Conspiracy Beliefs |
Significance of the mean difference | p > 0.05 Cohen’s d = 0.02 | p > 0.05 Cohen’s d = −0.01 | p > 0.05 Cohen’s d = 0.06 | p > 0.05 Cohen’s d = 0.29 | p < 0.001 Cohen’s d = 1.45 | p < 0.001 Cohen’s d = 1.37 |
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Morar, C.; Tiba, A.; Jovanovic, T.; Valjarević, A.; Ripp, M.; Vujičić, M.D.; Stankov, U.; Basarin, B.; Ratković, R.; Popović, M.; et al. Supporting Tourism by Assessing the Predictors of COVID-19 Vaccination for Travel Reasons. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 918. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020918
Morar C, Tiba A, Jovanovic T, Valjarević A, Ripp M, Vujičić MD, Stankov U, Basarin B, Ratković R, Popović M, et al. Supporting Tourism by Assessing the Predictors of COVID-19 Vaccination for Travel Reasons. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(2):918. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020918
Chicago/Turabian StyleMorar, Cezar, Alexandru Tiba, Tamara Jovanovic, Aleksandar Valjarević, Matthias Ripp, Miroslav D. Vujičić, Uglješa Stankov, Biljana Basarin, Rade Ratković, Maria Popović, and et al. 2022. "Supporting Tourism by Assessing the Predictors of COVID-19 Vaccination for Travel Reasons" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 2: 918. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020918