A Comparative Analysis of Gender Discrepancy Stress, Attitudes toward Intimate Partner Violence, and Perpetration among Young Adults in the USA and Uganda
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Social Status
2.2.2. Attitudes toward Dating Violence
2.2.3. Gender Discrepancy and Gender Discrepancy Stress
2.2.4. AUDIT Scores
2.2.5. Intimate Partner Violence
2.2.6. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Sample Characteristics
3.2. Exploratory Findings
3.3. Inferential Models–Uganda
3.3.1. Bivariable Models
3.3.2. Multivariable Model
3.4. Inferential Models–United States
Bivariable Models
3.5. Multivariable Models
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Black, E.; Worth, H.; Clarke, S.; Obol, J.H.; Akera, P.; Awor, A.; Shabiti, M.S.; Fry, H.; Richmond, R. Prevalence and Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence against Women in Conflict Affected Northern Uganda: A Cross-Sectional Study. Confl. Health 2019, 13, 35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bott, S.; Guedes, A.; Ruiz-Celis, A.P.; Mendoza, J.A. Intimate Partner Violence in the Americas: A Systematic Review and Reanalysis of National Prevalence Estimates. Rev. Panam. Salud Publica-Pan Am. J. Public Health 2021, 45, e26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Breiding, M.J.; Smith, S.G.; Basile, K.C.; Walters, M.L.; Chen, J.; Merrick, M.T. Prevalence and Characteristics of Sexual Violence, Stalking, and Intimate Partner Violence Victimization—National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, United States, 2011. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. Surveill. Summ. 2014, 63, 1–18. [Google Scholar]
- Izugbara, C.O.; Obiyan, M.O.; Degfie, T.T.; Bhatti, A. Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence among Urban Women in Sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0230508. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Smith, S.G.; Zhang, X.; Basile, K.C.; Merrick, M.T.; Wang, J.; Kresnow, M.; Chen, J. The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2015 Data Brief—Updated Release. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/2015data-brief508.pdf (accessed on 29 August 2022).
- McClintock, H.F.; Dulak, S.L. Intimate Partner Violence and Sexually Transmitted Infections Among Women in Sub-Saharan Africa. J. Immigr. Minor. Health 2021, 23, 191–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yonga, A.M.; Kiss, L.; Onarheim, K.H. A Systematic Review of the Effects of Intimate Partner Violence on HIV-Positive Pregnant Women in Sub-Saharan Africa. BMC Public Health 2022, 22, 220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Culbreth, R.; Swahn, M.H.; Salazar, L.F.; Kasirye, R.; Musuya, T. Intimate Partner Violence and Associated Risk Factors among Youth in the Slums of Kampala. J. Interpers. Violence 2021, 36, NP11736–NP11755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Swahn, M.H.; Culbreth, R.; Masyn, K.E.; Salazar, L.F.; Wagman, J.; Kasirye, R. The Intersection of Alcohol Use, Gender Based Violence and HIV: Empirical Findings among Disadvantaged Service-Seeking Youth in Kampala, Uganda. AIDS Behav. 2021, 25, 3106–3114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abramsky, T.; Devries, K.; Kiss, L.; Francisco, L.; Nakuti, J.; Musuya, T.; Kyegombe, N.; Starmann, E.; Kaye, D.; Michau, L.; et al. A Community Mobilisation Intervention to Prevent Violence against Women and Reduce HIV/AIDS Risk in Kampala, Uganda (the SASA! Study): Study Protocol for a Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial. Trials 2012, 13, 96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abramsky, T.; Devries, K.; Kiss, L.; Kyegombe, N.; Starmann, E.; Cundill, B.; Watts, C.; Nakuti, J.; Michau, L.; Francisco, L.; et al. Findings from the SASA! Study: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial to Assess the Impact of a Community Mobilization Intervention to Prevent Violence against Women and Reduce HIV Risk in Kampala, Uganda. BMC Med. 2014, 12, 122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abramsky, T.; Devries, K.M.; Michau, L.; Nakuti, J.; Musuya, T.; Kyegombe, N.; Watts, C. The Impact of SASA!, A Community Mobilisation Intervention, on Women’s Experiences of Intimate Partner Violence: Secondary Findings from a Cluster Randomised Trial in Kampala, Uganda. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2016, 70, 818–825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Reidy, D.E.; Shirk, S.D.; Sloan, C.A.; Zeichner, A. Men Who Aggress against Women: Effects of Feminine Gender Role Violation on Physical Aggression in Hypermasculine Men. Psychol. Men Masc. 2009, 10, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lisco, C.; Leone, R.; Gallagher, K.; Parrott, D. “Demonstrating Masculinity” Via Intimate Partner Aggression: The Moderating Effect of Heavy Episodic Drinking. Sex Roles 2015, 73, 58–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Moore, T.M.; Stuart, G.L. A Review of the Literature on Masculinity and Partner Violence. Psychol. Men Masc. 2005, 6, 46–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parrott, D.J.; Zeichner, A. Effects of Hypermasculinity Oh Physical Aggression against Women. Psychol. Men Masc. 2003, 4, 70–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reidy, D.E.; D’Inverno, A.S.; Bogen, K.W.; Swahn, M.H.; Jacobs, G.M. Masculinity and Violence Against Women from a Social-Ecological Perspective: Implications for Prevention. In Handbook of Interpersonal Violence and Abuse across the Lifespan: A Project of the National Partnership to End Interpersonal Violence across the Lifespan (NPEIV); Geffner, R., White, J.W., Hamberger, L.K., Rosenbaum, A., Vaughan-Eden, V., Vieth, V.I., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2022; pp. 2353–2374. ISBN 978-3-319-89999-2. [Google Scholar]
- Zark, L.; Satyen, L. Cross-Cultural Differences in Student Attitudes Toward Intimate Partner Violence: A Systematic Review. Trauma Violence Abus. 2021, 23, 1007–1022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zegenhagen, S.; Ranganathan, M.; Buller, A.M. Household Decision-Making and Its Association with Intimate Partner Violence: Examining Differences in Men’s and Women’s Perceptions in Uganda. SSM Popul. Health 2019, 8, 100442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Speizer, I.S. Intimate Partner Violence Attitudes and Experience among Women and Men in Uganda. J. Interpers. Violence 2010, 25, 1224–1241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ninsiima, A.B.; Leye, E.; Michielsen, K.; Kemigisha, E.; Nyakato, V.N.; Coene, G. “Girls Have More Challenges; They Need to Be Locked Up”: A Qualitative Study of Gender Norms and the Sexuality of Young Adolescents in Uganda. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nalukwago, J.; Crutzen, R.; van den Borne, B.; Bukuluki, P.M.; Bufumbo, L.; Burke, H.M.; Field, S.; Zikusooka, A.; Fiedler, A.A.; Alaii, J. Gender Norms Associated with Adolescent Sexual Behaviours in Uganda. Int. Soc. Sci. J. 2019, 69, 35–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paek, H.-J.; Lee, B.; Salmon, C.T.; Witte, K. The Contextual Effects of Gender Norms, Communication, and Social Capital on Family Planning Behaviors in Uganda: A Multilevel Approach. Health Educ. Behav. 2008, 35, 461–477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Abramsky, T.; Watts, C.H.; Garcia-Moreno, C.; Devries, K.; Kiss, L.; Ellsberg, M.; Jansen, H.A.; Heise, L. What Factors Are Associated with Recent Intimate Partner Violence? Findings from the WHO Multi-Country Study on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence. BMC Public Health 2011, 11, 109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Wilson, N. Socio-Economic Status, Demographic Characteristics and Intimate Partner Violence. J. Int. Dev. 2019, 31, 632–657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Foran, H.M.; O’Leary, K.D. Alcohol and Intimate Partner Violence: A Meta-Analytic Review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2008, 28, 1222–1234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Caetano, R.; Schafer, J.; Cunradi, C.B. Alcohol-Related Intimate Partner Violence among White, Black, and Hispanic Couples in the United States. Alcohol Res. Health 2001, 25, 58–65. [Google Scholar]
- Zablotska, I.B.; Gray, R.H.; Koenig, M.A.; Serwadda, D.; Nalugoda, F.; Kigozi, G.; Sewankambo, N.; Lutalo, T.; Mangen, F.W.; Wawer, M. Alcohol Use, Intimate Partner Violence, Sexual Coercion and HIV among Women Aged 15–24 in Rakai, Uganda. AIDS Behav. 2009, 13, 225–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Swahn, M.H.; Culbreth, R.; Salazar, L.F.; Tumwesigye, N.M.; Jernigan, D.H.; Kasirye, R.; Obot, I.S. The Prevalence and Context of Alcohol Use, Problem Drinking and Alcohol-Related Harm among Youth Living in the Slums of Kampala, Uganda. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chan, K.L.; Straus, M.A.; Brownridge, D.A.; Tiwari, A.; Leung, W.C. Prevalence of Dating Partner Violence and Suicidal Ideation Among Male and Female University Students Worldwide. J. Midwifery Women’s Health 2008, 53, 529–537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Straus, M.A. Prevalence of Violence Against Dating Partners by Male and Female University Students Worldwide. Violence Against Women 2004, 10, 790–811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stöckl, H.; March, L.; Pallitto, C.; Garcia-Moreno, C. Intimate Partner Violence among Adolescents and Young Women: Prevalence and Associated Factors in Nine Countries: A Cross-Sectional Study. BMC Public Health 2014, 14, 751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Walsh, T.B.; Seabrook, R.C.; Tolman, R.M.; Lee, S.J.; Singh, V. Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence and Beliefs About Partner Violence Screening Among Young Men. Ann. Fam. Med. 2020, 18, 303–308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Straus, M.A. Dominance and Symmetry in Partner Violence by Male and Female University Students in 32 Nations. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 2008, 30, 252–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kyegombe, N.; Starmann, E.; Karen, M.D.; Michau, L.; Nakuti, J.; Musuya, T.; Watts, C.; Heise, L. ‘SASA! Is the Medicine That Treats Violence’. Qualitative Findings on How a Community Mobilisation Intervention to Prevent Violence against Women Created Change in Kampala, Uganda. Glob. Health Action 2014, 7, 25082. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Starmann, E.; Collumbien, M.; Kyegombe, N.; Devries, K.; Michau, L.; Musuya, T.; Watts, C.; Heise, L. Exploring Couples’ Processes of Change in the Context of SASA!, A Violence Against Women and HIV Prevention Intervention in Uganda. Prev. Sci. Off. J. Soc. Prev. Res. 2017, 18, 233–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Starmann, E.; Kyegombe, N.; Devries, K.; Abramsky, T.; Watts, C.; Heise, L.; Michau, L.; Musuya, T.; Collumbien, M. Examining Diffusion to Understand the How of SASA!, A Violence against Women and HIV Prevention Intervention in Uganda. BMC Public Health 2018, 18, 616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Adler, N.E.; Epel, E.S.; Castellazzo, G.; Ickovics, J.R. Relationship of Subjective and Objective Social Status with Psychological and Physiological Functioning: Preliminary Data in Healthy, White Women. Health Psychol. 2000, 19, 586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Price, E.L.; Byers, E.S.; Belliveau, N.; Bonner, R.; Caron, B.; Doiron, D.; Greenough, J.; Guerette-Breau, A.; Hicks, L.; Landry, A. The Attitudes towards Dating Violence Scales: Development and Initial Validation. J. Fam. Violence 1999, 14, 351–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reidy, D.E.; Berke, D.S.; Gentile, B.; Zeichner, A. Man Enough? Masculine Discrepancy Stress and Intimate Partner Violence. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2014, 68, 160–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Saunders, J.B.; Aasland, O.G.; Babor, T.F.; De la Fuente, J.R.; Grant, M. Development of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): WHO Collaborative Project on Early Detection of Persons with Harmful Alcohol Consumption-II. Addiction 1993, 88, 791–804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ford-Gilboe, M.; Wathen, C.N.; Varcoe, C.; MacMillan, H.L.; Scott-Storey, K.; Mantler, T.; Hegarty, K.; Perrin, N. Development of a Brief Measure of Intimate Partner Violence Experiences: The Composite Abuse Scale (Revised)-Short Form (CASR-SF). BMJ Open 2016, 6, e012824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Roberts, A.; Rogers, J.; Mason, R.; Siriwardena, A.N.; Hogue, T.; Whitley, G.A.; Law, G.R. Alcohol and Other Substance Use during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021, 229, 109150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yeo, Y.H.; He, X.; Ting, P.-S.; Zu, J.; Almario, C.V.; Spiegel, B.M.R.; Ji, F. Evaluation of Trends in Alcohol Use Disorder-Related Mortality in the US Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic. JAMA Netw. Open 2022, 5, e2210259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Miller, A.P.; Mugamba, S.; Bulamba, R.M.; Kyasanku, E.; Nkale, J.; Nalugoda, F.; Nakigozi, G.; Kigozi, G.; Nalwoga, G.K.; Kagaayi, J.; et al. Exploring the Impact of COVID-19 on Women’s Alcohol Use, Mental Health, and Experiences of Intimate Partner Violence in Wakiso, Uganda. PLoS ONE 2022, 17, e0263827. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Topalli, V.; Giancola, P.R.; Tarter, R.E.; Swahn, M.; Martel, M.M.; Godlaski, A.J.; McCoun, K.T. The Persistence of Neighborhood Disadvantage: An Experimental Investigation of Alcohol and Later Physical Aggression. Crim. Justice Behav. 2014, 41, 400–416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Variable | Uganda (n = 210) N (%) | US (n = 198) N (%) | χ2 | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sex Female Male | 100 (47.62) 110 (52.38) | 105 (53.03) 93 (46.97) | 1.19 | 0.2746 |
Highest level of education * Primary/Middle School Secondary/High School U. Diploma/Associate’s Bachelor’s Degree Master’s Degree | 3 (1.44) 46 (22.01) 56 (26.79) 103 (49.28) 1 (0.48) | 13 (6.63) 81 (41.33) 46 (23.47) 42 (21.43) 14 (7.14) | 53.44 | <0.0001 |
Health Excellent Very Good Good Fair Poor | 45 (21.43) 81 (38.57) 63 (30.00) 20 (9.52) 1 (0.48) | 64 (32.32) 80 (40.40) 43 (21.72) 11 (5.56) 0 (0) | 10.36 | 0.0348 |
Mean (SD) | ||||
Age | 23 (1.81) | 21.24 (2.34) | 8.53 | <0.0001 |
Social Status (0–100) | 43.24 (22.62) | 51.65 (23.85) | −3.61 | 0.0003 |
Variable | Uganda | United States | χ2 | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
N (%) | ||||
IPV Perpetration Male Yes No Female Yes No | 47 (42.73) 63 (57.27) 14 (14.00) 86 (86.00) | 54 (58.06) 39 (41.94) 42 (40.00) 63 (60.00) | 4.74 17.43 | 0.0294 <0.0001 |
IPV Victimization Male Yes No Female Yes No | 57 (51.82) 53 (48.18) 47 (47.00) 53 (53.00) | 63 (67.74) 30 (32.26) 58 (55.24) 47 (44.76) | 5.29 1.39 | 0.0215 0.2382 |
Mean (SD) | t-value | |||
Gender Discrepancy Male Female | 2.79 (1.28) 2.62 (1.29) | 3.37 (1.12) 3.17 (1.08) | −3.40 −3.32 | 0.0008 0.0011 |
Discrepancy Stress Male Female | 2.55 (1.34) 2.48 (1.29) | 3.16 (1.09) 2.90 (1.10) | −3.53 −2.52 | 0.0005 0.0215 |
IPV Attitudes Male Female | 2.20 (0.63) 1.89 (0.75) | 2.53 (0.81) 2.24 (0.77) | −3.23 −3.28 | 0.0014 0.0012 |
AUDIT Score Male Female | 4.50 (5.49) 3.81 (4.98) | 8.08 (8.98) 5.07 (6.55) | −3.48 −1.54 | 0.0006 0.1251 |
Uganda | USA | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Correlates | OR (95% CI) | Adj. OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | Adj. OR (95% CI) |
Gender Male Female | 4.58 (2.32, 9.04) Ref | 6.23 (2.45, 15.86) Ref | 2.08 (1.78, 3.67) Ref | 1.35 (0.60, 3.02) Ref |
IPV Victimization Yes No | 23.57 (8.87, 62.62) Ref | 23.47 (7.79, 70.22) Ref | 27.81 (11.59, 66.76) Ref | 27.40 (9.97, 75.32) Ref |
Gender Discrepancy | 1.33 (1.05, 1.69) | 0.85 (0.53, 1.38) | 1.65 (1.25, 2.18) | 1.09 (0.63, 1.91) |
Discrepancy Stress | 1.53 (1.21, 1.93) | 1.39 (0.88, 2.19) | 1.77 (1.33, 2.35) | 1.38 (0.78, 2.42) |
IPV Attitudes | 3.34 (2.05, 5.43) | 2.22 (1.20, 4.10) | 2.15 (1.46, 3.16) | 1.71 (0.97, 3.00) |
AUDIT Score Likely AUD Hazardous Drinking Low risk/No Drinking | 4.14 (1.20, 14.30) * 4.51 (2.01, 10.12) * Ref | 3.01 (0.34, 26.42) 2.30 (0.76, 6.90) Ref | 10.56 (4.12, 27.08) 2.40 (1.09, 5.27) * Ref | 7.11 (2.25, 22.54) 2.54 (0.84, 7.69) Ref |
Age | 0.99 (0.84, 1.16) | 0.86 (0.67, 1.12) | 0.93 (0.83, 1.05) | 0.85 (0.71, 1.02) |
Social Status (0–100) | 1.01 (0.99, 1.02) | 0.99 (0.98, 1.01) | ||
Education level | 0.68 (0.48, 0.96) | 1.18 (0.69, 2.02) | 0.95 (0.73, 1.24) | |
Health Fair/Poor Excellent/Good | 2.46 (0.99, 6.14) Ref | 0.59 (0.17, 2.08) Ref |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Lyons, M.J.; Swahn, M.H.; Culbreth, R.; Reidy, D.; Musuya, T.; Bukuluki, P. A Comparative Analysis of Gender Discrepancy Stress, Attitudes toward Intimate Partner Violence, and Perpetration among Young Adults in the USA and Uganda. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 13373. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013373
Lyons MJ, Swahn MH, Culbreth R, Reidy D, Musuya T, Bukuluki P. A Comparative Analysis of Gender Discrepancy Stress, Attitudes toward Intimate Partner Violence, and Perpetration among Young Adults in the USA and Uganda. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(20):13373. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013373
Chicago/Turabian StyleLyons, Matthew J., Monica H. Swahn, Rachel Culbreth, Dennis Reidy, Tina Musuya, and Paul Bukuluki. 2022. "A Comparative Analysis of Gender Discrepancy Stress, Attitudes toward Intimate Partner Violence, and Perpetration among Young Adults in the USA and Uganda" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 20: 13373. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013373