Changing Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence against Pregnant Women: A Three-Year Longitudinal Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participants
2.2. Procedures
2.3. Variables and Measures
2.3.1. IPV
2.3.2. Mental Health Conditions (Depressive Symptoms, Anxiety, and Stress)
2.3.3. Health-Related Quality of Life (HRQoL)
2.3.4. Partner Involvement
2.3.5. Family Support
2.3.6. Adverse Childhood Experiences
2.3.7. Demographic Characteristics
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Implications
6. Strengths and Limitations
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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IPV Categories | Period from Pre-Pregnancy to 4 Weeks after Childbirth | 3 Years after Childbirth | n (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Violent relationship (VR) a | IPV+ | IPV+ | 40 (11.8%) |
Decreased violent relationship (DVR) | IPV+ | IPV− | 70 (20.6%) |
Nonviolent relationship (NVR) | IPV− | IPV− | 230 (67.6%) |
Overall (n = 340) | NVR (n = 230) | DVR (n = 70) | VR (n = 40) | p-Value by χ2 or F Test | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age at baseline (mean, SD) | 31.30 (4.26) | 31.36 (4.33) | 31.01 (3.68) | 31.45 (4.86) | 0.815 |
Education attainment (n, %) | 0.431 | ||||
Lower secondary or below | 44 (12.9) | 30 (13.0) | 11 (15.7) | 3 (7.5) | |
Upper secondary | 104 (30.6) | 67 (29.1) | 20 (28.6) | 17 (42.5) | |
College/university or above | 192 (56.5) | 133 (57.8) | 39 (55.7) | 20 (50.0) | |
Marital status (n, %) | 0.137 | ||||
Widow/separated/divorced | 25 (7.4) | 14 (6.1) | 9 (12.9) | 2 (5.0) | |
Married | 315 (92.6) | 216 (93.9) | 61 (87.1) | 38 (95.0) | |
Employment status (n, %) | 0.737 | ||||
Unemployment | 118 (34.7) | 83 (36.1) | 22 (31.4) | 13 (32.5) | |
Employment | 222 (65.3) | 147 (63.9) | 48 (68.6) | 27 (67.5) | |
Receiving social security assistance (n, %) | 0.003 a | ||||
Yes | 12 (3.5) | 3 (1.3) | 5 (7.1) | 4 (10.0) | |
No | 328 (96.5) | 227 (98.7) | 65 (92.9) | 36 (90.0) | |
Monthly household income (n, %) | 0.229 | ||||
Less than HKD15,000 | 32 (9.4) | 19 (8.3) | 11 (15.7) | 2 (5.0) | |
HKD15,000 to HKD39,999 | 132 (38.8) | 87 (37.8) | 26 (37.1) | 19 (47.5) | |
HKD40,000 or above | 176 (51.8) | 124 (53.9) | 33 (47.1) | 19 (47.5) | |
Risk behaviors (n, %) | 0.864 | ||||
Yes (gambling, smoking, or drinking) | 29 (8.5) | 20 (8.7) | 5 (7.1) | 4 (10.0) | |
No | 311 (91.5) | 210 (91.3) | 65 (92.9) | 36 (90.0) | |
Chronic illness (n, %) | 0.473 | ||||
Yes | 36 (10.6) | 23 (10.0) | 10 (14.3) | 3 (7.5) | |
No | 304 (89.4) | 207 (90.0) | 60 (85.7) | 37 (92.5) | |
ACEs (mean, SD) | 2.79 (2.08) | 2.44 (1.88) | 3.61 (2.34) | 3.38 (2.23) | <0.001 |
Father’s involvement T2 (mean, SD) | 21.87 (3.69) | 22.30 (3.49) | 20.64 (3.70) | 21.53 (4.32) | 0.003 |
Father’s involvement T3 (mean, SD) | 24.13 (4.66) | 24.00 (4.59) | 24.47 (5.10) | 24.28 (4.34) | 0.749 |
Family support T2 (mean, SD) | 23.65 (4.28) | 24.13 (3.79) | 22.80 (5.08) | 22.38 (4.98) | 0.010 |
Family support T3 (mean, SD) | 23.34 (4.58) | 23.70 (3.91) | 23.40 (4.90) | 21.18 (6.63) | 0.005 |
Depression, CEPDS (mean, SD) | |||||
T1 | 6.98 (4.50) | 6.49 (4.49) | 8.23 (4.58) | 7.60 (4.01) | 0.011 |
T2 | 4.31 (4.15) | 3.83 (3.38) | 5.51 (5.19) | 4.93 (5.54) | 0.007 |
T3 | 4.25 (4.46) | 3.81 (3.92) | 4.94 (4.99) | 5.58 (5.93) | 0.024 |
Anxiety, DASS (mean, SD) | |||||
T1 | 2.77 (2.55) | 2.54 (2.43) | 3.51 (2.89) | 2.80 (2.35) | 0.020 |
T2 | 1.22 (1.59) | 1.03 (1.25) | 1.47 (1.80) | 1.88 (2.51) | 0.002 |
T3 | 0.76 (1.63) | 0.60 (1.15) | 1.20 (2.60) | 0.95 (1.71) | 0.020 |
Stress, DASS (mean, SD) | |||||
T1 | 3.83 (3.35) | 3.43 (3.23) | 4.63 (3.36) | 4.70 (3.63) | 0.007 |
T2 | 2.58 (2.87) | 2.18 (2.35) | 3.26 (3.68) | 3.68 (3.53) | 0.001 |
T3 | 2.36 (2.99) | 2.07 (2.53) | 2.87 (3.58) | 3.10 (4.01) | 0.036 |
Health-related quality of life (mean, SD) | |||||
PCS T1 | 46.29 (6.92) | 46.56 (6.97) | 45.80 (6.68) | 45.62 (7.07) | 0.586 |
MCS T1 | 48.34 (8.40) | 49.33 (8.21) | 46.21 (8.54) | 46.39 (8.41) | 0.007 |
PCS T2 | 50.93 (5.98) | 51.48 (5.56) | 49.97 (6.93) | 49.46 (6.27) | 0.047 |
MCS T2 | 52.51 (8.45) | 53.40 (8.14) | 51.08 (8.50) | 49.90 (9.36) | 0.015 |
PCS T3 | 53.14 (5.63) | 53.18 (5.76) | 52.80 (5.57) | 53.48 (5.06) | 0.817 |
MCS T3 | 52.83 (8.08) | 53.14 (7.30) | 53.39 (8.12) | 50.08 (11.33) | 0.070 |
Phase 1 | Adjusted ORs | ||
---|---|---|---|
Age at baseline | 1.00 (0.94, 1.05) | ||
Education attainment | |||
Lower secondary or below | 0.90 (0.42, 1.96) | ||
Upper secondary | 1.31 (0.75, 2.29) | ||
College/university or above | 1 | ||
Marital status | |||
Widow/separated/divorced | 1.03 (0.42, 2.54) | ||
Married | 1 | ||
Employment status | |||
Unemployment | 0.63 (0.36, 1.10) | ||
Employment | 1 | ||
Receiving social security assistance | |||
Yes | 6.44 (1.95, 21.18) ** | ||
No | 1 | ||
Monthly household income | |||
Less than HKD15,000 | 1.15 (0.44, 3.01) | ||
HKD15,000 to HKD39,999 | 1.31 (0.76, 2.25) | ||
HKD40,000 or above | 1 | ||
Phase 2 (variables individually added, controlled for demographics) | |||
Overall father involvement T2 | 0.93 (0.87, 0.997) * | ||
Family support level T2 | 0.93 (0.88, 0.98) ** | ||
Overall father involvement T3 | 1.02 (0.96, 1.07) | ||
Family support level T3 | 0.95 (0.90, 0.996) * | ||
Phase 3 (variables individually added, controlled for demographics) | |||
ACEs | 1.25 (1.12, 1.39) *** | ||
Risk behaviors | |||
Yes (gambling, smoking, or drinking) | 0.98 (0.42, 2.25) | ||
No | 1 | ||
Chronic illness | |||
Yes | 1.22 (0.59, 2.54) | ||
No | 1 | ||
Depression, CEPDS | |||
T1 | 1.06 (1.01, 1.12) * | ||
T2 | 1.08 (1.03, 1.14) ** | ||
T3 | 1.07 (1.01, 1.12) * | ||
Anxiety, DASS | |||
T1 | 1.08 (0.99, 1.18) | ||
T2 | 1.29 (1.13, 1.48) *** | ||
T3 | 1.11 (0.97, 1.27) | ||
Stress, DASS | |||
T1 | 1.12 (1.05, 1.20) ** | ||
T2 | 1.17 (1.08, 1.26) *** | ||
T3 | 1.09 (1.01, 1.17) * | ||
Health-related quality of life | |||
PCS T1 | 0.98 (0.95, 1.02) | ||
MCS T1 | 0.96 (0.93, 0.99) ** | ||
PCS T2 | 0.95 (0.92, 0.99) ** | ||
MCS T2 | 0.96 (0.93, 0.98) ** | ||
PCS T3 | 1.00 (0.96, 1.04) | ||
MCS T3 | 0.99 (0.96, 1.01) |
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Chen, X.Y.; Lo, C.K.M.; Ho, F.K.; Leung, W.C.; Ip, P.; Chan, K.L. Changing Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence against Pregnant Women: A Three-Year Longitudinal Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 14397. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114397
Chen XY, Lo CKM, Ho FK, Leung WC, Ip P, Chan KL. Changing Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence against Pregnant Women: A Three-Year Longitudinal Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(21):14397. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114397
Chicago/Turabian StyleChen, Xiao Yan, Camilla K. M. Lo, Frederick K. Ho, Wing Cheong Leung, Patrick Ip, and Ko Ling Chan. 2022. "Changing Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence against Pregnant Women: A Three-Year Longitudinal Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 21: 14397. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114397