The Relationship between the Need for Closure and Coronavirus Fear: The Mediating Effect of Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories about COVID-19
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Coronavirus Fear
1.2. Conspiracy Theories
1.3. The Need for Cognitive Closure and Belief in COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories
1.4. Belief in Conspiracy Theories about COVID-19 and Coronavirus Fear
1.5. The Present Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Measures
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Item | Evaluation | M | SD |
---|---|---|---|
c The actions of the Polish authorities are effective in the fight against the coronavirus. [Działania polskich władz są skuteczne w walce z pandemią koronawirusa.] | Acquaintance | 2.22 | 0.92 |
Fact | 2.11 | 0.99 | |
Opinion | 3.44 | 1.07 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.67 | 1.05 | |
c There was no need to panic over the coronavirus. [Ludzie niepotrzebnie wpadli w panikę związaną z koronawirusem.] | Acquaintance | 2.89 | 1.20 |
Fact | 2.33 | 0.94 | |
Opinion | 3.44 | 0.96 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.44 | 0.50 | |
b Any prevention is advisable to avoid infection (disinfection, wearing masks). [Wszelka profilaktyka jest wskazana, aby uniknąć zarażenia (dezynfekcja, noszenie masek).] | Acquaintance | 3.67 | 0.47 |
Fact | 3.67 | 0.47 | |
Opinion | 2.56 | 1.34 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.11 | 0.31 | |
b People infected with the coronavirus but without symptoms can also spread the virus. [Osoby zarażone koronawirusem, ale bez objawów choroby, również mogą zarażać.] | Acquaintance | 3.56 | 0.68 |
Fact | 3.67 | 0.67 | |
Opinion | 1.67 | 1.05 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.67 | 1.05 | |
a The coronavirus was created by man. [Koronawirus został stworzony przez człowieka.] | Acquaintance | 2.44 | 1.17 |
Fact | 1.78 | 0.79 | |
Opinion | 2.56 | 1.26 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.56 | 0.96 | |
b Most people who get COVID-19 will recover. [Większość osób, które zachorują na COVID-19, wyzdrowieje z tej choroby.] | Acquaintance | 3.33 | 0.67 |
Fact | 3.44 | 0.83 | |
Opinion | 2.56 | 1.17 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.78 | 1.03 | |
b The coronavirus is a real threat to health and life. [Koronawirus stanowi rzeczywiste zagrożenie dla zdrowia i/lub życia.] | Acquaintance | 3.33 | 1.05 |
Fact | 3.67 | 0.67 | |
Opinion | 2.33 | 1.49 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.56 | 1.07 | |
b People of any age could be infected by the coronavirus. [Koronawirusem mogą zarazić się osoby w każdym wieku.] | Acquaintance | 3.56 | 0.68 |
Fact | 3.89 | 0.31 | |
Opinion | 2.00 | 1.15 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.67 | 1.05 | |
c People contract the coronavirus through their own inattention and failure to comply with restrictions. [Ludzie zarażają się przez własną nieuwagę oraz przez nieprzestrzeganie obostrzeń.] | Acquaintance | 2.56 | 1.07 |
Fact | 2.67 | 1.15 | |
Opinion | 3.33 | 1.05 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.56 | 0.96 | |
c Due to the media, the coronavirus seems to be more dangerous than it really is. [Przez media wydaje się, że koronawirus jest groźniejszy niż w rzeczywistości.] | Acquaintance | 3.22 | 1.03 |
Fact | 2.78 | 1.03 | |
Opinion | 3.56 | 0.68 | |
Conspiracy theory | 2.22 | 1.23 | |
c General practicioners should not work remotely. [Lekarze rodzinni nie powinni pracować zdalnie.] | Acquaintance | 2.56 | 1.17 |
Fact | 2.56 | 1.07 | |
Opinion | 3.44 | 0.96 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.44 | 0.50 | |
b The coronavirus poses a greater threat to the elderly and those with comorbidities. [Koronawirus stanowi większe zagrożenie dla osób starszych oraz posiadających choroby współistniejące.] | Acquaintance | 3.89 | 0.31 |
Fact | 3.89 | 0.31 | |
Opinion | 2.22 | 1.31 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.44 | 0.68 | |
b Pneumonia vaccines do not protect against COVID-19. [Szczepionki przeciwko zapaleniu płuc nie chronią przed COVID-19.] | Acquaintance | 1.67 | 1.05 |
Fact | 3.44 | 0.68 | |
Opinion | 1.89 | 0.99 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.33 | 0.47 | |
a The obligation to wear face masks was introduced to control society. [Wprowadzono obowiązkowe noszenie masek na twarzy w celu kontroli społeczeństwa.] | Acquaintance | 2.44 | 1.26 |
Fact | 1.89 | 1.29 | |
Opinion | 2.67 | 1.33 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.78 | 0.42 | |
c Actions and restrictions introduced in the fight against the coronavirus were unnecessary. [Działania i obostrzenia wprowadzone w celu walki z koronawirusem były niepotrzebne.] | Acquaintance | 3.22 | 0.92 |
Fact | 1.78 | 0.92 | |
Opinion | 3.56 | 0.96 | |
Conspiracy theory | 2.33 | 1.33 | |
a Chinese authorities have intentionally allowed the coronavirus to spread around the world. [Chińskie władze celowo dopuściły do rozprzestrzenienia się koronawirusa na świecie.] | Acquaintance | 3.11 | 0.99 |
Fact | 1.22 | 0.42 | |
Opinion | 2.78 | 1.31 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.78 | 0.42 | |
a The coronavirus tests results do not indicate its actual presence in the body (the results are random).] [Wyniki testów na obecność koronawirusa nie pokazują jego faktycznej obecności w organizmie (podane wyniki są losowe).] | Acquaintance | 2.33 | 1.15 |
Fact | 1.56 | 0.68 | |
Opinion | 3.11 | 0.99 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.33 | 1.05 | |
c Universities and other institutions should return to normal (pre-pandemic) operating mode. [Uczelnie wyższe oraz inne instytucje powinny wrócić do normalnego (takiego jak przed pandemią) trybu pracy.] | Acquaintance | 3.89 | 0.31 |
Fact | 2.33 | 1.05 | |
Opinion | 3.67 | 0.47 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.33 | 0.67 | |
c Wearing masks should be an individual decision. [Noszenie maseczek jest kwestią indywidualną.] | Acquaintance | 2.56 | 0.96 |
Fact | 1.67 | 0.67 | |
Opinion | 3.33 | 1.05 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.33 | 0.47 | |
a The coronavirus was created by the USA as a biological weapon. [Koronawirus został stworzony przez USA jako broń biologiczna.] | Acquaintance | 2.44 | 1.26 |
Fact | 1.11 | 0.31 | |
Opinion | 2.11 | 0.99 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.89 | 0.31 | |
a Coronavirus vaccines may contain microchips. [W szczepionkach przeciwko koronawirusowi mogą znajdować się mikroczipy.] | Acquaintance | 2.33 | 0.94 |
Fact | 1.11 | 0.31 | |
Opinion | 1.78 | 1.03 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.89 | 0.31 | |
c Schools should function as normal as before the pandemic. [Szkoły powinny funkcjonować normalnie—tak jak przed pandemią.] | Acquaintance | 3.33 | 0.94 |
Fact | 1.89 | 0.99 | |
Opinion | 3.44 | 0.96 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.33 | 0.47 | |
a 5G spreads the coronavirus. [Sieć 5G rozprzestrzenia koronowirusa.] | Acquaintance | 2.56 | 1.17 |
Fact | 1.00 | 0.00 | |
Opinion | 2.22 | 1.40 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.89 | 0.31 | |
a The coronavirus has become an element of the economic struggle against the dynamically developing Chinese economy. [Koronawirus stał się elementem walki ekonomicznej przeciwko prężnie rozwijającej się gospodarce Chin.] | Acquaintance | 2.78 | 1.23 |
Fact | 1.56 | 0.68 | |
Opinion | 2.56 | 1.26 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.44 | 0.83 | |
a The pandemic is political and media fraud. [Ogłoszona pandemia jest oszustwem medialno-politycznym.] | Acquaintance | 3.78 | 0.63 |
Fact | 1.44 | 0.68 | |
Opinion | 3.00 | 1.25 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.89 | 0.31 | |
a 5G has negative health effects or other negative consequences for society. [Sieć 5G negatywnie wpływa na zdrowie lub ma inne negatywne konsekwencje dla społeczeństwa.] | Acquaintance | 2.56 | 1.07 |
Fact | 1.11 | 0.31 | |
Opinion | 2.78 | 1.13 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.56 | 0.83 | |
b COVID-19 may be asymptomatic. [COVID-19 można przechodzić bezobjawowo.] | Acquaintance | 3.89 | 0.31 |
Fact | 3.89 | 0.31 | |
Opinion | 2.00 | 1.15 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.33 | 0.94 | |
b The virus can be transmitted airborne by sneezing and coughing, or by interacting with an infected person at a distance of less than one meter. [Wirus może być przenoszony drogą kropelkową poprzez kichanie i kaszel, bądź kiedy dochodzi do interakcji na odległość mniejszą niż 1 metr.] | Acquaintance | 3.44 | 0.83 |
Fact | 3.89 | 0.31 | |
Opinion | 2.11 | 1.20 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.33 | 0.47 | |
c Restrictions should be removed sooner. [Obostrzenia powinny zostać zniesione szybciej.] | Acquaintance | 3.78 | 0.63 |
Fact | 2.00 | 1.25 | |
Opinion | 3.56 | 0.68 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.56 | 0.96 | |
b The most common symptoms are fever, dry cough, and fatigue. [Najczęściej występującymi objawami są: gorączka, suchy kaszel, zmęczenie.] | Acquaintance | 3.11 | 0.87 |
Fact | 3.44 | 0.68 | |
Opinion | 1.89 | 1.10 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.44 | 0.68 | |
Low temperature and snow cannot kill the coronavirus. [Niska temperatura i śnieg nie mogą zabić koronawirusa.] | Acquaintance | 2.33 | 0.67 |
Fact | 2.67 | 1.15 | |
Opinion | 3.00 | 0.94 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.78 | 1.03 | |
In fact, COVID-19 is seasonal flu. [COVID-19 jest nową nazwą dla grypy sezonowej.] | Acquaintance | 3.44 | 0.68 |
Fact | 1.78 | 0.79 | |
Opinion | 2.67 | 0.94 | |
Conspiracy theory | 2.33 | 1.25 | |
The COVID-19 vaccine will contain a substance that causes infertility. [Szczepionka przeciw COVID-19 będzie w sobie zawierała substancję powodującą bezpłodność.] | Acquaintance | 1.56 | 0.68 |
Fact | 1.11 | 0.31 | |
Opinion | 2.44 | 1.34 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.78 | 0.42 | |
Hand dryers are not effective against the coronavirus. [Suszarki do rąk nie są skuteczne w zabijaniu koronawirusa.] | Acquaintance | 2.00 | 1.15 |
Fact | 3.33 | 0.82 | |
Opinion | 2.44 | 1.07 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.22 | 0.63 | |
COVID-19 was created to prevent Donald Trump from being re-elected. [COVID-19 został stworzony, aby Donald Trump nie został ponownie wybrany na stanowisko prezydenta USA.] | Acquaintance | 1.89 | 0.99 |
Fact | 1.22 | 0.42 | |
Opinion | 2.67 | 0.94 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.89 | 0.31 | |
Pets are carriers of the coronavirus. [Zwierzęta domowe są nosicielami koronawirusa.] | Acquaintance | 3.11 | 0.74 |
Fact | 1.78 | 1.03 | |
Opinion | 2.11 | 0.99 | |
Conspiracy theory | 2.89 | 1.29 | |
The carrier of the coronavirus can infect others 2 days before the onset of the first symptoms. [Okres zarażania może zacząć się 2 dni przed pojawieniem się pierwszych symptomów.] | Acquaintance | 2.33 | 1.25 |
Fact | 3.33 | 0.67 | |
Opinion | 1.78 | 1.03 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.22 | 0.63 | |
People suffering from allergy should not stop taking medications during the pandemic. [Alergicy nie powinni wstrzymywać się od przyjmowania leków podczas pandemii.] | Acquaintance | 2.00 | 1.15 |
Fact | 3.44 | 0.96 | |
Opinion | 2.00 | 0.94 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.44 | 0.96 | |
Polish medical services are doing well in the fight against the coronavirus. [Polskie służby medyczne dobrze radzą sobie w walce z koronawirusem.] | Acquaintance | 2.78 | 1.03 |
Fact | 2.56 | 0.96 | |
Opinion | 3.22 | 0.79 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.22 | 0.42 | |
There are no medications that can prevent or treat COVID-19. [Nie ma leków, które mogą zapobiegać lub leczyć COVID-19.] | Acquaintance | 2.00 | 0.94 |
Fact | 2.11 | 1.20 | |
Opinion | 2.56 | 1.17 | |
Conspiracy theory | 2.44 | 1.17 | |
Further isolation of the society is necessary to end the pandemic. [Dalsza izolacja społeczeństwa jest konieczna, aby udało się zakończyć pandemię.] | Acquaintance | 2.89 | 0.87 |
Fact | 2.33 | 0.94 | |
Opinion | 3.11 | 1.10 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.78 | 1.03 | |
Hydrogen peroxide injections reduce the risk of coronavirus infection. [Wstrzykiwanie wody utlenionej zmniejsza ryzyko zakażenia koronawirusem.] | Acquaintance | 1.33 | 0.67 |
Fact | 1.00 | 0.00 | |
Opinion | 2.78 | 1.13 | |
Conspiracy theory | 2.89 | 0.99 | |
The coronavirus is artificial modification of a virus intended to cause panic. [Koronawirus to sztuczna modyfikacja wirusa stworzona w celu wywołania paniki.] | Acquaintance | 2.22 | 1.03 |
Fact | 1.00 | 0.00 | |
Opinion | 2.56 | 1.26 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.89 | 0.31 | |
Bats are recognised as a natural reservoirs of the coronavirus. [Nietoperze są uznawane za naturalnych gospodarzy koronawirusa.] | Acquaintance | 3.56 | 0.68 |
Fact | 3.33 | 0.82 | |
Opinion | 2.11 | 1.10 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.56 | 0.68 | |
Prolonged use of medical masks, if properly worn, will not result in CO2 poisoning or oxygen deficiency. [Długotrwałe stosowanie masek medycznych przy prawidłowym noszeniu nie powoduje zatrucia CO2 ani niedoboru tlenu.] | Acquaintance | 2.22 | 1.03 |
Fact | 3.22 | 1.03 | |
Opinion | 2.11 | 1.29 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.22 | 0.42 | |
Quarantined persons should strictly follow the rules. [Osoby przebywające na kwarantannie powinny bezwzględnie jej przestrzegać.] | Acquaintance | 3.67 | 0.67 |
Fact | 3.67 | 0.47 | |
Opinion | 2.67 | 1.05 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.44 | 0.96 | |
The restrictions are necessary to stop the spread of the coronavirus. [Wprowadzone obostrzenia są konieczne, aby koronawirus nie rozprzestrzeniał się.] | Acquaintance | 3.56 | 0.50 |
Fact | 3.00 | 1.05 | |
Opinion | 2.78 | 1.23 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.67 | 0.94 | |
Fewer and fewer people are worried about the coronavirus situation. [Coraz mniej osób przejmuje się sytuacją związaną z koronawirusem.] | Acquaintance | 3.56 | 0.68 |
Fact | 3.56 | 0.50 | |
Opinion | 2.89 | 1.20 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.56 | 0.96 | |
The coronavirus causes more deaths than seasonal flu. [Koronawirus powoduje więcej zgonów, niż grypa sezonowa.] | Acquaintance | 3.22 | 0.92 |
Fact | 2.22 | 1.40 | |
Opinion | 2.00 | 1.41 | |
Conspiracy theory | 2.78 | 1.31 | |
Being able to hold your breath for 10 s or more without coughing or feeling uncomfortable does not mean you are healthy and not infected with the coronavirus. [Możliwość wstrzymania oddechu przez 10 sekund lub dłużej bez kaszlu bądź poczucia dyskomfortu nie oznacza, że osoba jest zdrowa i nie jest zarażona koronawirusem.] | Acquaintance | 2.11 | 1.20 |
Fact | 3.33 | 1.25 | |
Opinion | 1.78 | 1.13 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.22 | 0.42 | |
The virus was designed to control the size of the population. [Wirus ma na celu kontrolę liczebności ludności.] | Acquaintance | 2.00 | 0.94 |
Fact | 1.44 | 0.68 | |
Opinion | 2.22 | 1.23 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.78 | 0.42 | |
Drinking alcohol might help remove the virus. [Spożywanie alkoholu może doprowadzić do pozbycia się wirusa.] | Acquaintance | 1.67 | 0.67 |
Fact | 1.00 | 0.00 | |
Opinion | 2.89 | 1.20 | |
Conspiracy theory | 2.33 | 1.33 | |
Media claims the coronavirus is a threat when, in fact, it is no more dangerous than seasonal flu. [Media określają koronawirusa jako zagrożenie, gdy w rzeczywistości nie jest on groźniejszy od grypy.] | Acquaintance | 2.56 | 1.07 |
Fact | 2.33 | 0.94 | |
Opinion | 3.56 | 0.96 | |
Conspiracy theory | 2.56 | 1.07 | |
Bill Gates has planned the pandemic. [Bill Gates zaplanował wprowadzenie stanu pandemii.] | Acquaintance | 2.22 | 1.31 |
Fact | 1.44 | 0.68 | |
Opinion | 2.33 | 1.05 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.89 | 0.31 | |
SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted over the clouds. [SARS-CoV-2 przenoszony jest w chmurach.] | Acquaintance | 1.11 | 0.31 |
Fact | 1.11 | 0.31 | |
Opinion | 2.00 | 1.25 | |
Conspiracy theory | 3.67 | 0.47 | |
Following the development of a vaccine against the coronavirus, vaccination should be mandatory. [Gdy powstanie szczepionka przeciw koronawirusowi szczepienia powinny być obowiązkowe.] | Acquaintance | 2.44 | 1.07 |
Fact | 2.56 | 1.17 | |
Opinion | 3.00 | 1.25 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.89 | 1.29 | |
The coronavirus can spread in hot and humid climates. [Koronawirus może rozprzestrzeniać się w gorącym i wilgotnym klimacie.] | Acquaintance | 1.89 | 0.87 |
Fact | 2.78 | 1.13 | |
Opinion | 2.00 | 1.05 | |
Conspiracy theory | 1.78 | 1.03 |
References
- WHO. Mental Health and Psychosocial Considerations during the COVID-19 Outbreak. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-MentalHealth-2020.1 (accessed on 1 August 2022).
- Banai, I.P.; Banai, B.; Mikloušić, I. Beliefs in COVID-19 conspiracy theories, compliance with the preventive measures, and trust in government medical officials. Curr. Psychol. 2021, 41, 7448–7458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ng, L.H.X.; Carley, K.M. “The coronavirus is a bioweapon”: Classifying coronavirus stories on fact-checking sites. Comput. Math. Organ Theory 2021, 27, 179–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bernard, F.O.; Akaito, J.A.; Joseph, I.; David, K.B. COVID-19: The trends of conspiracy theories vs. facts. S. Afr. Med. J. 2020, 35, 147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pappas, G.; Kiriaze, I.J.; Giannakis, P.; Falagas, M.E. Psychosocial consequences of infectious diseases. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2009, 15, 743–747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ahorsu, D.K.; Lin, C.Y.; Imani, V.; Saffari, M.; Griffiths, M.D.; Pakpour, A.H. The fear of COVID-19 scale: Development and initial validation. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict. 2020, 20, 1537–1545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- White, H.A. Need for cognitive closure predicts stress and anxiety of college students during COVID-19 pandemic. Pers. Individ. Differ. 2022, 187, 111393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Y.; Zhao, J.; Ma, Z.; McReynolds, L.S.; Lin, D.; Chen, Z.; Wang, T.; Wang, D.; Zhang, Y.; Fan, F.; et al. Mental Health Among College Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic in China: A 2-Wave Longitudinal Survey. J. Affect. Disord. 2021, 281, 597–604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, L.F. Thinking styles and modes of thinking: Implications for education and research. J. Psychol. 2002, 136, 245–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schimmenti, A.; Billieux, J.; Starcevic, V. The four horsemen of fear: An integrated model of understanding fear experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Clin. Neuropsychiatry 2020, 17, 41–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karataş, Z.; Uzun, K.; Tagay, Ö. Relationships Between the Life Satisfaction, Meaning in Life, Hope and COVID-19 Fear for Turkish Adults During the COVID-19 Outbreak. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mertens, G.; Gerritsen, L.; Duijndam, S.; Salemink, E.; Engelhard, I.M. Fear of the coronavirus (COVID-19): Predictors in an online study conducted in March 2020. J. Anxiety Disord. 2020, 74, 102258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Enea, V.; Eisenbeck, N.; Petrescu, T.C.; Carreno, D.F. Perceived impact of quarantine on loneliness, death obsession, and preoccupation with God: Predictors of increased fear of COVID-19. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 643977. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, S.; Chen, H.; Liu, A.; Lee, H. Toward COVID-19 Information: Infodemic or Fear of Missing Out? Healthcare 2020, 8, 550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Superio, D.; Anderson, K.; Oducado, R.M.F.; Luceno, M.T.; Palcullo, V.E.V.; Bendalian, M.V.T. The information-seeking behavior and levels of knowledge, precaution, and fear of college students in Iloilo, Philippines amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 2021, 62, 102412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ng, K.H.; Kemp, R. Understanding and reducing the fear of COVID-19. J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. B 2020, 21, 752–754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Buneviciene, I.; Bunevicius, R.; Bagdonas, S.; Bunevicius, A. COVID-19 media fatigue: Predictors of decreasing interest and avoidance of COVID-19-related news. Public Health 2021, 196, 124–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Naveed, M.A.; Malik, A.; Mahmood, K. Impact of conspiracy beliefs on COVID-19 fear and health protective behavior: A case of university students. Libr. Hi Tech 2021, 39, 761–775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Webster, D.M.; Kruglanski, A.W. Motivated Closing of the Mind: “Seizing” and “Freezig”. Psychol. Rev. 1996, 103, 263–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Webster, D.M.; Kruglanski, A.W. Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 1994, 67, 1049–1062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Douglas, K.M.; Sutton, R.M.; Cichocka, A. The psychology of Conspiracy Theories. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 2017, 26, 538–542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fenster, M. Excerpt from Conspiracy Teories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture; revised and updated ed.; University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, MN, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Swami, V.; Voracek, M.; Stieger, S.; Tran, U.S.; Furnham, A. Analytic thinking reduces belief in conspiracy theories. Cognition 2014, 133, 572–585. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Marchlewska, M.; Cichocka, A.; Kossowska, M. Addicted to answers: Need for cognitive closure and the endorsement of conspiracy beliefs. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 2017, 48, 109–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tetlock, P.E. Social Functionalist Frameworks for Judgment and Choice: Intuitive Politicians, Theologians, and Prosecutors. Psychol. Rev. 2002, 109, 451–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Douglas, K.M.; Sutton, R.M.; Callan, M.J.; Dawtry, R.J.; Harvey, A.J. Someone is Pulling the Strings: Hypersensitive Agency Detection and Belief in Conspiracy Theories. Think. Reason. 2016, 22, 57–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Van Prooijen, J.W.; Jostmann, N.B. Belief in conspiracy theories: The influence of uncertainty and perceived morality. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 2013, 43, 109–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bruder, M.; Haffke, P.; Neave, N.; Nouripanah, N.; Imhoff, R. Measuring individual diffrences in generic beliefs in conspiracy theories cross cultures: Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire. Front. Psychol. 2013, 4, 225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kossowska, M. The role of cognitive inhibition in motivation toward closure. Pers. Individ. Differ. 2007, 42, 1117–1126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abalakina-Paap, M.; Stephan, W.G.; Craig, T.; Gregory, W.L. Beliefs in Conspiracies. Polit. Psychol. 1999, 20, 637–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jolley, D.; Douglas, K.M.; Sutton, R.M. Blaming a few bad apples to save a threatened barrel: The system-justifying function of conspiracy theories. Polit. Psychol. 2018, 39, 465–478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stoica, C.A.; Umbreș, R. Suspicious minds in times of crisis: Determinants of Romanians’ beliefs in COVID-19 conspiracy theories. Eur. Soc. 2021, 23, 246–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uscinski, J.E.; Enders, A.M.; Klofstad, C.; Seelig, M.; Funchion, J.R.; Everett, C.; Wuchty, S.; Premaratne, K.; Murthi, M. Why do people believe COVID-19 conspiracy theories? HKS Misinf. Rev. 2020, 1, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oleksy, T.; Wnuk, A.; Maison, D.; Łyś, A. Content matters. Diffrent predictors and social consequences of general and government-related conspiracy theories on COVID-19. Pers. Individ. Differ. 2020, 168, 110289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grzesiak-Feldman, M. The effect of high-anxiety situations on conspiracy thinking. Curr. Psychol. 2013, 32, 100–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zelic, Z.; Beric, M.; Grum, D.K. Examining the Role of COVID-19 Conspiracy Beliefs in Predicting Vaccination Intentions, Preventive Behavior and Willingness to Share Opinions about the Coronavirus. Stud. Psychol. 2022, 64, 136–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heiss, R.; Gell, S.; Röthlingshöfer, E.; Zoller, C. How threat perceptions relate to learning and conspiracy beliefs about COVID-19: Evidence from a panel study. Pers. Individ. Differ. 2021, 175, 110672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Earnshaw, V.A.; Eaton, L.A.; Kalichman, S.C.; Brousseau, N.M.; Hill, E.C.; Fox, A.B. COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs, health behaviors, and policy support. Transl. Behav. Med. 2020, 10, 850–856. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jovančević, A.; Milićević, N. Optimism-pessimism, conspiracy theories and general trust as factors contributing to COVID-19 related behavior—A cross-cultural study. Pers. Individ. Differ. 2020, 167, 110216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bruder, M.; Kunert, L. The conspiracy hoax? Testing key hypotheses about the correlates of generic beliefs in conspiracy theories during the COVID-19 pandemic. Int. J. Psychol. 2021, 57, 43–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roets, A.; Van Hiel, A. Why some hate to dilly-dally and others do not: The arousal-invoking capacity of decision-making for low-and high-scoring need for closure individuals. Soc. Cogn. 2008, 26, 333–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Berenbaum, H.; Bredemeier, K.; Thompson, R.J. Intolerance of uncertainty: Exploring its dimensionality and associations with need for cognitive closure, psychopathology, and personality. J. Anxiety Disord. 2008, 22, 117–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maaravi, Y.; Hameiri, B.; Gur, T. Fighting Coronavirus One Personality at a Time: Need for Structure, Trait Victimhood, and Adherence to COVID-19 Health Guidelines. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 576450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Durodié, B. Handling uncertainty and ambiguity in the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychol. Trauma Theory Res. Pract. Policy 2020, 12, S61–S62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rettie, H.; Daniels, J. Coping and tolerance of uncertainty: Predictors and mediators of mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Am. Psychol. 2021, 76, 427–437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Allington, D.; Duffy, B.; Wessely, S.; Dhavan, N.; Rubin, J. Health-protective behaviour, social media usage and conspiracy belief during the COVID-19 public health emergency. Psychol. Med. 2021, 51, 1763–1769. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Šuriņa, S.; Martinsone, K.; Perepjolkina, V.; Kolesnikova, J.; Vainik, U.; Ruža, A.; Vrublevska, J.; Smirnova, D.; Fountoulakis, K.N.; Rancans, E. Factors related to COVID-19 preventive behaviors: A structural equation model. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 676521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leo, D.; Trabucchi, M. COVID-19 and the Fears of Italian Senior Citizens. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 3572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alimoradi, Z.; Ohayon, M.; Griffiths, M.; Lin, C.; Pakpour, A. Fear of COVID-19 and its association with mental health-related factors: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BJPsych Open 2022, 8, E73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khademi, F.; Moayedi, S.; Golitaleb, M.; Karbaleie, N. The COVID-19 pandemic and death anxiety in the elderly. Int. J. Ment. Health Nurs. 2020, 30, 346–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, K.; Chen, Y.; Lin, R.; Han, K. Clinical features of COVID-19 in elderly patients: A comparison with young and middle-aged patients. J. Infect. 2020, 80, e14–e18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Giordani, R.C.F.; Zanoni da Silva, M.; Muhl, C.; Giolo, S.R. Fear of COVID-19 scale: Assessing fear of the coronavirus pandemic in Brazil. J. Health Psychol. 2020, 27, 901–912. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mahmood, Q.K.; Jafree, S.R.; Qureshi, W.A. The psychometric validation of FCV19S in urdu and socio-demographic association with fear in the people of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) province in Pakistan. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict. 2020, 20, 426–436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fenercioglu, A.K.; Can, G.; Sipahioglu, N.T.; Demir, O.; Gulluoglu, S.; Gedik, I.; Altintas, G.E.; Cosgun, A.; Gurcan, Z. Impaired Perceptions and Conspiracy Beliefs about the Way of Emergence of the COVID-19 Infection. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 5557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Radnitz, S.; Underwood, P. Is Belief in Conspiracy Theories Pathological? A Survey Experiment on the Cognitive Roots of Extreme Suspicion. Br. J. Politi Sci. 2017, 47, 113–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Swami, V. Social Psychological Origins of Conspiracy Theories: The Case of the Jewish Conspiracy Theory in Malaysia. Front. Psychol. 2012, 3, 280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Romer, D.; Jamieson, K.H. Conspiracy theories as barriers to controlling the spread of COVID-19 in the U.S. Soc. Sci. Med. 2020, 263, 113356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Buturoiu, R.; Udrea, G.; Oprea, D.A.; Corbu, N. Who Believes in Conspiracy Theories about the COVID-19 Pandemic in Romania? An Analysis of Conspiracy Theories Believers’ Profiles. Societies 2021, 11, 138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Coninck, D.; Frissen, T.; Matthijs, K.; D’Haenens, L.; Lits, G.; Champagne-Poirier, O.; Carignan, M.E.; David, M.D.; Pignard-Cheynel, N.; Salerno, S. Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories and Misinformation About COVID-19: Comparative Perspectives on the Role of Anxiety, Depression and Exposure to and Trust in Information Sources. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 646394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Simione, L.; Vagni, M.; Gnagnarella, C.; Bersani, G.; Pajardi, D. Mistrust and Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories Differently Mediate the Effects of Psychological Factors on Propensity for COVID-19 Vaccine. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 683684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dong, E.; Du, H.; Gardner, L. An interactive web-based dashboard to track COVID-19 in real time. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2020, 20, 533–534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Serwis Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej. Nowe Kroki w Walce z Koronawirusem—Ostatni Etap Przed Narodową Kwarantanną. Available online: https://www.gov.pl/web/koronawirus/nowe-kroki-w-walce-z-koronawirusem--ostatni-etap-przed-narodowa-kwarantanna (accessed on 1 August 2022).
- Roets, A.; Van Hiel, A. Item selection and validation of a brief, 15-item version of the Need for Closure Scale. Pers. Individ. Differ. 2011, 50, 90–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kossowska, M.; Hanusz, K.; Trejtowicz, M. Skrócona wersja Skali Potrzeby Poznawczego Domknięcia. Dobór pozycji i walidacja skali. Psychol. Społeczna 2012, 7, 89–99. [Google Scholar]
- Ziegler, M.; Kemper, C.J.; Kruyen, P. Short Scales—Five Misunderstandings and Ways to Overcome Them. J. Individ. Differ. 2014, 35, 185–189. [Google Scholar]
- Rammstedt, B.; Beierlein, C. Can’t We Make It Any Shorter? The Limits of Personality Assessment and Ways to Overcome Them. J. Individ. Differ. 2014, 35, 212–220. [Google Scholar]
- WHO. Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Advice for the Public: Mythbusters. Available online: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public/myth-busters (accessed on 1 August 2022).
- Kline, R.B. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling; Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Byrne, B.M. Structural equation modeling with AMOS, EQS, and LISREL: Comparative approaches to testing for the factorial validity of a measuring instrument. Int. J. Test. 2001, 1, 55–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bollen, K.A.; Stine, R. Direct and indirect effects: Classical and bootstrap estimates of variability. Sociol. Methodol. 1990, 20, 115–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shrout, P.E.; Bolger, N. Mediation in Experimental and Nonexperimental Studies: New Procedures and Recommendations. Psychol. Methods 2002, 7, 422–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rucker, D.; Preacher, K.; Tormala, Z.; Petty, R. Mediation analysis in social psychology: Current practices and new recommendations. Soc. Personal. Psychol. 2011, 5, 359–371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, X.; Lynch, J.G.; Chen, Q. Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and Truths about Mediation Analysis. J. Consum. Res. 2010, 37, 197–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria, 2021; Available online: https://www.R-project.org/ (accessed on 1 August 2022).
- Rosseel, Y. lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling. J. Stat. Softw. 2012, 48, 1–36. [Google Scholar]
- Yilmaz, H. The Turkish Adaptation of 15-Item Version of the Need for Cognitive Closure Scale and Relationship between Thinking and Decision-Making Styles. Univers. J. Educ. Res. 2018, 6, 1710–1722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kruganski, A. The Psychology of Closed Mindedness; Psychology Press: New York, NY, USA, 2004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pasion, R.; Paiva, T.; Fernandes, C.; Barbosa, F. The AGE effect on protective behaviors during the COVID-19 outbreak: Sociodemographic, perceptions and psychological accounts. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 561785. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pummer, L.; Böhm, R.; Lilleholt, L.; Winter, K.; Zettler, I.; Sassenberg, K. Conspiracy theories and their societal effects during the COVID-19 pandemic. Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 2022, 13, 49–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andrade, E.F.; Pereira, L.J.; Oliveira, A.P.L.D.; Orlando, D.R.; Alves, D.A.G.; Guilarducci, J.D.S.; Castelo, P.M. Perceived fear of COVID-19 infection according to sex, age and occupational risk using the Brazilian version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale. Death Stud. 2022, 46, 533–542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haktanir, A.; Seki, T.; Dilmaç, B. Adaptation and evaluation of Turkish version of the fear of COVID-19 scale. Death Stud. 2022, 46, 719–727. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Conti, A.; Clari, M.; Arese, S.; Bandini, B.; Cavallaro, L.; Mozzone, S.; Vellone, E.; Frigerio, S.; Campagna, S. Validation and psychometric evaluation of the Italian version of the Spinal Cord Injury Secondary Conditions Scale. Spinal Cord 2020, 58, 496–503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hossain, M.A.; Jahid, I.K.; Hossain, K.M.A.; Walton, L.M.; Uddin, Z.; Haque, O.; Kabir, F.; Arafat, S.M.Y.; Sakel, M.; Faruqui, R.; et al. Knowledge, attitudes, and fear of COVID-19 during the Rapid Rise Period in Bangladesh. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0239646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pyszczynski, T.; Greenberg, J.; Solomon, S. Why do we need what we need? A terror management perspective on the roots of human social motivation. Psychol. Inq. 1997, 8, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scrima, F.; Miceli, S.; Caci, B.; Cardaci, M. The relationship between fear of COVID-19 and intention to get vaccinated. The serial mediation roles of existential anxiety and conspiracy beliefs. Pers. Individ. Differ. 2022, 184, 111188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reuken, P.A.; Rauchfuss, F.; Albers, S.; Settmacher, U.; Trautwein, C.; Bruns, T.; Stallmach, A. Between fear and courage: Attitudes, beliefs, and behavior of liver transplantation recipients and waiting list candidates during the COVID-19 pandemic. Am. J. Transplant. 2020, 20, 3042–3050. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rieger, M.O.; Wang, M. Trust in Government Actions during the COVID-19 Crisis. Soc. Indic. Res. 2021, 159, 967–989. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gabarron, E.; Oyeyemi, S.O.; Wynn, R. COVID-19-related misinformation on social media: A systematic review. Bull. World Health Organ. 2021, 99, 455–463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, S.; Kamarck, T.; Mermelstein, R. A global measure of perceived stress. J. Health Soc. Behav. 1983, 24, 385–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Juczyński, Z. Narzędzia Pomiaru w Promocji i Psychologii Zdrowia; Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego: Warszawa, Poland, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Kroenke, K.; Spitzer, R.L.; Williams, J.B. The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2001, 16, 606–613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kokoszka, A.; Jastrzębski, A.; Obrębski, M. Ocena psychometrycznych właściwości polskiej wersji Kwestionariusza Zdrowia Pacjenta-9 dla osób dorosłych. Psychiatria 2016, 13, 187–193. [Google Scholar]
- Cattell, R.B. The scree test for the number of factors. Multivar. Behav. Res. 1966, 1, 245–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kaiser, H.F. The application of electronic computers to factor analysis. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 1960, 20, 141–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ferrando, P.J.; Lorenzo-Seva, U. Assessing the quality and appropriateness of factor solutions and factor score estimates in exploratory item factor analysis. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 2017, 78, 762–780. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, L.T.; Bentler, P.M. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct. Equ. Model. 1999, 6, 1–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hambleton, R.K.; Swaminathan, H. Item Response Theory: Principles and Applications; Springer: Jersey City, NJ, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Samejima, F. Graded Response Model. In Handbook of Modern Item Response Theory; van der Linden, W.J., Hambleton, R.K., Eds.; Springer: Jersey City, NJ, USA, 1997. [Google Scholar]
- Yang, F.M.; Kao, S.T. Item response theory for measurement validity. Shanghai Arch. Psychiatry 2014, 26, 171–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hair, J.F.; Black, W.C.; Babin, B.J.; Anderson, R.E. Multivariate Data Analysis: A Global Perspective; Pearson Education: New York, NY, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Ferguson, E.; Cox, T. Exploratory factor analysis: A users’ guide. Int. J. Sel. Assess. 1993, 1, 84–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Embretson, S.E.; Reise, S.P. Item Response Theory for Psychologists; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahwah, NJ, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Nunnally, J.C.; Bernstein, I.H. Psychometric Theory, 3rd ed.; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 1994. [Google Scholar]
Variables | M | SD | s | k | [1] | [2] | [3] | [4] | [5] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[1] Age | 33.41 | 10.23 | 0.64 | −0.70 | |||||
[2] Coronavirus fear | 1.92 | 0.74 | 0.56 | −0.52 | −0.08 | ||||
[3] Belief in conspiracy theories | 24.68 | 10.11 | 0.18 | −1.05 | 0.42 *** | −0.38 *** | |||
[4] Avoidance of ambiguity | 4.53 | 0.97 | −0.55 | −0.21 | −0.01 | 0.16 ** | 0.08 | ||
[5] The need for predictability | 3.99 | 1.15 | −0.29 | −0.38 | 0.07 | 0.27 *** | −0.04 | 0.48 *** | |
[7] Closed-mindedness | 2.28 | 0.84 | 0.57 | 0.03 | −0.04 | 0.00 | 0.06 | −0.21 *** | −0.09 |
Model Pathways | Point Estimates | Standard Error | 95% CI | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predictor | Mediator | Lower | Upper | |||
The need for predictability | Belief in conspiracy theories | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.09 | 0.009 |
Avoidance of ambiguity | Belief in conspiracy theories | −0.06 | 0.02 | −0.11 | −0.02 | 0.004 |
Closed-mindedness | Belief in conspiracy theories | −0.04 | 0.02 | −0.08 | −0.00 | 0.039 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Staszak, S.; Maciejowska, J.; Urjasz, W.; Misiuro, T.; Cudo, A. The Relationship between the Need for Closure and Coronavirus Fear: The Mediating Effect of Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories about COVID-19. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 14789. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192214789
Staszak S, Maciejowska J, Urjasz W, Misiuro T, Cudo A. The Relationship between the Need for Closure and Coronavirus Fear: The Mediating Effect of Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories about COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(22):14789. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192214789
Chicago/Turabian StyleStaszak, Sara, Julia Maciejowska, Wiktoria Urjasz, Tomasz Misiuro, and Andrzej Cudo. 2022. "The Relationship between the Need for Closure and Coronavirus Fear: The Mediating Effect of Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories about COVID-19" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 22: 14789. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192214789