The Relationship between Emotion Regulation (ER) and Problematic Smartphone Use (PSU): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Search Strategy
2.2. Eligibility Criteria
2.3. Selection Process
2.4. Data Extraction and Management
2.5. Quality of Study
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Systematic Review
3.1.1. Study Selection
3.1.2. Quality Assessment
3.1.3. Study Characteristics
3.1.4. Emotion Regulation Measures
3.1.5. Problematic Smartphone Use Measures
3.1.6. Relationship between ER and PSU
3.1.7. Relationship between Specific ED Domains and PSU
3.1.8. Relationship between Cognitive Reappraisal of ER and PSU Domains
3.2. Meta-Analyses
Subgroup Analysis
- DERS and SAS scales
- 2.
- DERS-SF and SPAI scales
- 3.
- ERQ and SAS
3.3. Conclusion of Meta-Analysis
3.4. NHRMC Evidence Statement Matrix
4. Discussion
Trengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Study | Study Design | N (Total) | Age (Mean and SD) Male Female | Country | Setting | Exposure Measurement | Outcome Measurement | Statistics (e.g., OR/RR, p-Value, 95% CI) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amendola et al., 2018 [59] | IV: cross-sectional | 280 | 13.31 (2.33) | Italy | Secondary schools | TMD brief | DERS | Mean, standard deviation, Pearson correlation, p-value < 0.05, ANOVA, multiple regression analysis | |
Chen et al., 2017 [60] | IV: cross-sectional | 384 | Not stated | China | Online survey | MR | Smartphone Addiction (SA) domain - own questionnaire (card sorting method) | Mean, standard deviation, correlation (total, male and female separately), Partial Least Squares (PLS) Regression utilising Composite Reliability (CR), square root of Average Variance Extracted (AVE) >0.5, then group comparison method to assess moderating role of gender | |
Coco et al., 2020 [51] | IV: cross-sectional | 242 | 14.16 (0.99) | Italy | High schools | DERS-SF | SAS-SV | Mean, standard deviation, correlations, paired sample t-test, Cohen’s d effect size, p-value < 0.05, auto-regressive cross-lagged model | |
Domoff et al., 2020 [61] | IV: cross-sectional | 111 | 14.57 (1.08) | USA | Southeast Michigan | DERS | APU | Mean, standard deviation, Mann–Whitney tests, Spearman’s Rho correlation; p-value < 0.01, Hayes’ PROCESS macro | |
Elhai et al., 2016 [40] | IV: cross-sectional | 308 | 33.15 (10.21) | USA | Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (Mturk), online labor market used in social science research | ERQ | Smartphone usage, SAS | Means, standard deviations, Pearson zero-order intercorrelations, linear regression, multiple regression, mediation analysis. | |
Elhai and Contractor, 2018 [56] | IV: cross-sectional | 296 | 19.44 (2.16) | USA | University | ERQ, RTSQ | Smartphone use, SAS | Mean, standard deviation, correlation, Latent Class Analysis (LCA), logistic regression analysis, Odds Ratio (OR) | |
Elhai et al., 2018 [57] | IV: cross-sectional | 68 | 19.75 (2.03) | USA | Psychology department online research pool | ERQ | SAS-SV, Moment app | Mean, standard deviation, partial correlation, growth curve modelling, p-value < 0.05 | |
Ercengiz et al., 2020 [62] | IV: cross-sectional | 398 | 20.06 (2.49) | Turkey | University | EMSS | NPM-Q | Mean, standard deviation, bivariate correlations, 95% CI, mediation analysis | |
Extremera et al., 2019 [63] | IV: cross-sectional | 845 | 15.63 (1.16) | Spain | Secondary schools | CERQ | SAS-SV | Mean, standard deviation, Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA), Pearson correlation, Logistic regression analysis. | |
Fortes et al., 2021 [64] | IV: cross-sectional | 308 | 32.66 (12.77) | 29.75 (10.16) | Brazil | Online survey | ERQ | Smartphone Addiction Inventory, habitual smartphone use | Mean, standard deviation, Pearson correlation; p-value < 0.05 |
Fu et al., 2020 [65] | IV: cross-sectional | 720 | 13.66 (1.36) | China | Middle schools | DERS-SF | SAS-CV | Mean, standard deviation, Pearson correlation, Hayes’ process MACRO, mediation model, moderated mediation model, simple slope analysis | |
Giordano et al., 2021 [49] | IV: cross-sectional | 252 | 13.54 (0.7) | Italy | High schools | DERS-SF | SPAI-I | Mean, standard deviation, independent samples t-test, ANOVA, bivariate correlation coefficients, SEM | |
504 | 47.60 (5.1) | 43.92 (4.5) | |||||||
Hoffner and Lee, 2015 [68] | IV: cross-sectional | 287 | 19.7 (2.04) | USA | University | ERQ | Missed uses/functions of mobile phone if lost | Mean, standard deviation, Cronbach’s alpha, 1 way ANOVA, regression analysis, p-value < 0.05, partial correlation | |
Horwood and Anglim, 2021 [58] | IV: cross-sectional | 692 | 25.23 (7.48) | Australia | University | DERS | Adolescent preoccupation with screen scale (modified) | Mean, standard deviation, correlation, regression models | |
lo Coco et al., 2020 [50] | IV: cross-sectional | 647 | 14.15 (1.43) | Italy | Middle and high schools | SPAI | DERS-SF | Mean, standard deviation (total, boys and girls separately), bivariate correlation, hierarchical regression analysis | |
Rozgonjuk and Elhai, 2021 [52] | IV: cross-sectional | 300 | 19.45 (2.17) | USA | University | ERQ | PSSU, SAS | Mean, standard deviation, Spearman correlation, structural regression; p-value < 0.05 | |
Sakiroglu, 2019 [53] | IV: cross-sectional | 296 | Not stated | Turkey | University | DERS | SAS | Mean, standard deviation, Pearson correlation, regression analysis | |
Satici and Deniz, 2020 [47] | IV: cross-sectional | 320 | 21.06 (1.76) | Turkey | Universities | ERQ | SAS-SV | Mean, standard deviation, correlations, p-value < 0.01, 95% CI, SEM | |
Squires et al., 2020 [48] | IV: cross-sectional | 204 | 20.6 (2.97) | Canada | University | DERS | SAS-SV | Means, standard deviation, bivariate correlation analyses, bootstrapped mediation analysis | |
Yildiz et al., 2017 [66] | IV: cross-sectional | 262 | 16.57 (1.13) | Turkey | High schools | ERSA | SAS-SF | Mean, standard deviation, Pearson correlation, multiple linear regression, p-value < 0.05 | |
Zsido et al., 2021 [67] | IV: cross-sectional | 499 | 33.11 (11.67) | Hungary | Online invitations on various forums and mailing lists | CERQ | SAS-SV | Mean, standard deviation, p-value < 0.01, SEM |
Study | Quality | Scale for ER | ER Domain | Scale for PSU | Study | PSU Domain | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PSU | Nomo-Phobia/Fear of Missing Out | Missed Uses of Mobile Phone if Loss | Smart-Phone Use Frequency | PSU— Daily Life Disturbances | PSU—Positive Anticipation | PSU—Cyberspace Oriented Relationship | PSU—Overuse | PSU—Withdrawal | PSU—Tolerance | Objective Minutes of Smartphone Use per Day | Objective Minutes of Smartphone Use per Weekday | ||||||
Elhai et al., 2016 [40] | IV (100%) | ERQ | Cognitive reappraisal, Expressive suppression | SAS | ↔ | ||||||||||||
↑ * | |||||||||||||||||
Elhai and Contractor 2018 [56] | IV (91%) | ERQ, RTSQ | Cognitive reappraisal, Expressive suppression, Rumination | Smartphone usage scale (developed by author, validated), SAS | ↑ *** | ↔ | ↑ * | ↔ | ↑ * | ↔ | ↑ * | ||||||
↔ | ↔ | ↑ * | ↑ * | ↔ | ↔ | ↑ *** | |||||||||||
Elhai et al., 2018 [57] | IV (91%) | ERQ | Cognitive reappraisal, Expressive suppression | Smartphone usage scale (developed by author, validated), SAS-SV | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | |||||||||
↑ *** | ↔ | ↔ # | ↔ | ||||||||||||||
Giordano et al., 2021 [49] | IV (91%) | DERS-SF | Total score | SPAI | ↑ ** | ||||||||||||
Horwood and Anglim, 2020 [58] | IV (91%) | DERS | Total score | Adolescent Pre-occupation with Screen Scale (adapted for adults use) | ↑ *** | ||||||||||||
Coco et al., 2020 [51] | IV (91%) | DERS-SF | Total score | SAS-SV | ↑ ** | ↑ ** | |||||||||||
lo Coco et al., 2020 [50] | IV (91%) | DERS | Total score | SPAI-I | ↑ ** | ||||||||||||
Amendola et al., 2019 [59] | IV (82%) | DERS | Non-accept, Goals, Impulse, Awareness, Strategies, Clarity | TMD brief | ↑ *** | ||||||||||||
Chen et al., 2017 [60] | IV (82%) | Mood regulation | Mood regulation | Smartphone addiction (validated) | ↑ *** | ||||||||||||
Domoff et al., 2020 [61] | IV (82%) | DERS | Total score | APU Scale | ↑ ** | ||||||||||||
Ercengiz et al., 2020 [62] | IV (82%) | EMSS | Total score as “emotion management skill” | NMP-Q | ↔ | ||||||||||||
Extremera et al., 2019 [63] | IV (82%) | CERQ | Self-blame, Rumination, Catastrophizing, Other blame, Positive reappraisal, Positive refocusing, Refocus on planning, Acceptance, Putting into perspectives | SAS-SV | ↑ **,^ | ||||||||||||
Fortes et al., 2020 [64] | IV (82%) | ERQ | Cognitive reappraisal, Expressive suppression | Habitual Smartphone Use Questionnaire, SPAI | ↔ | ||||||||||||
↔ | |||||||||||||||||
Fu et al., 2020 [65] | IV (82%) | DERS | Total score | SAS-CV | ↑ *** | ||||||||||||
Rozgonjuk and Elhai 2021 [52] | IV (82%) | ERQ | Expressive suppression | SAS | ↑ ** | ||||||||||||
Satici and Deniz, 2020 [47] | IV (82%) | ERQ | Cognitive reappraisal, Expressive suppression | SAS-SV | ↓ ** | ||||||||||||
↑ ** | |||||||||||||||||
Squires et al., 2020 [48] | IV (82%) | DERS-18 | Total score | SAS-SV | ↑ *** | ||||||||||||
Yildiz et al., 2017 [66] | IV (82%) | ERSA | Internal-functional emotion regulation, Internal-dysfunctional emotion regulation, External-functional emotion regulation, External-dysfunctional emotion regulation | SAS-BF | ↓ ** | ||||||||||||
↑ ** | |||||||||||||||||
↑ ** | |||||||||||||||||
↑ * | |||||||||||||||||
Zsido et al., 2021 [67] | IV (82%) | CERQ Maladaptive scales | Self-blame, Rumination, Catastrophizing, Other blame | SAS-SV | ↑ *** |
Study | Relevant PSU Domains | ER Domain | ||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cognitive Reappraisal | Expressive Suppression | Non-Accept | Goals | Impulse | Awareness | Strategies | Clarity | Self-Blame | Acceptance | Rumi-Nation | Positive Refocusing | Refocus on Planning | Positive Reappraisal | Putting into Perspective | Catastro-Phising | Blaming Others | ||
Amendola et al., 2019 [59] | PSU | ↑ *** | ↑ *** | ↑ *** | ↔ | ↑ ***,^ | ↑ *** | |||||||||||
Elhai et al., 2016 [40] | PSU | ↔ | ↑ * | |||||||||||||||
Elhai and Contractor, 2018 [56] | PSU-overuse | ↔ | ↑ * | ↑ *** | ||||||||||||||
PSU-withdrawal | ↔ | ↔ | ↑ *** | |||||||||||||||
PSU tolerance | ↑ * | ↑ *** | ↑ *** | |||||||||||||||
Elhai et al., 2018 [57] | Baseline objective measures of smartphone use | ↔ | ↑ *** | |||||||||||||||
Objective minutes of smartphone use per day | ↔ | ↔ | ||||||||||||||||
Objective minutes of smartphone use per weekday | ↔ | ↔ | ||||||||||||||||
Objective minutes of smartphone use over weekdays | ↓ * | ↔ | ||||||||||||||||
Objective minutes of smartphone use per weekend | ↔ | ↔ | ||||||||||||||||
Objective minutes of smartphone use over weekends | ↔ | ↔ | ||||||||||||||||
Extremera et al., 2019 [63] | PSU | ↑ ** | ↔ | ↑ **,^ | ↔ | ↔ | ↓ * | ↔ | ↑ **,^ | ↑ **,^ | ||||||||
Horwood and Anglim, 2020 [58] | PSU | ↔ | ↔ | ↑ *** | ↔ ^ | ↔ | ↑ * | |||||||||||
Zsido et al., 2021 [67] | PSU | ↑ *** | ↑ *** | ↑ *** | ↑ *** | |||||||||||||
Satici and Deniz, 2020 [47] | PSU | ↓ ** | ↑ ** | |||||||||||||||
Hoffner and Lee, 2015 [68] | Missed uses/functions of mobile phone if lost - interpersonal contact | ↑ ** | ↔ | |||||||||||||||
Missed uses/functions of mobile phone if lost - social support | ↑ ** | ↔ | ||||||||||||||||
Missed uses/functions of mobile phone if lost - entertainment/information content | ↔ | ↑ ** | ||||||||||||||||
Fortes et al., 2020 [64] | Amount use | ↔ | ↔ | |||||||||||||||
Functional impairment dimension of SPAI | ↔ | ↑ * | ||||||||||||||||
Rozgonjuk and Elhai, 2019 [52] | PSU | Nil | ↑ ** |
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Components | Grade | Comments |
---|---|---|
1. Evidence base | D—Poor | All 21 studies included are level IV studies |
2. Consistency | B—Good | Out of 21 studies, 17 have similar conclusions. Only one study showed inconsistency and the rest have unique ways of communicating the results, though still relevant to the research question. |
3. Clinical impact | C—Moderate | Included studies had a shared goal of establishing the association between ER and PSU. Recognizing this relationship may invoke individual insight on how they utilize their smartphones in relation to their emotional state and encourage non-hazardous individual use of the device with or without professional help. |
4. Generalizability | C—Satisfactory | Studies included were carried out in different countries with subjects mainly of a younger population age group and with a formal education background. Nonetheless, the evidence can sensibly be generalized to all smartphone users. |
5. Applicability | C | Body of evidence offer some support for recommendation(s), but further research is warranted to aid deeper understanding of the issue. |
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Shahidin, S.H.; Midin, M.; Sidi, H.; Choy, C.L.; Nik Jaafar, N.R.; Mohd Salleh Sahimi, H.; Che Roos, N.A. The Relationship between Emotion Regulation (ER) and Problematic Smartphone Use (PSU): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 15848. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192315848
Shahidin SH, Midin M, Sidi H, Choy CL, Nik Jaafar NR, Mohd Salleh Sahimi H, Che Roos NA. The Relationship between Emotion Regulation (ER) and Problematic Smartphone Use (PSU): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(23):15848. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192315848
Chicago/Turabian StyleShahidin, Siti Hajar, Marhani Midin, Hatta Sidi, Chia Lip Choy, Nik Ruzyanei Nik Jaafar, Hajar Mohd Salleh Sahimi, and Nur Aishah Che Roos. 2022. "The Relationship between Emotion Regulation (ER) and Problematic Smartphone Use (PSU): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 23: 15848. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192315848