Collective Motivational Interviewing for Individuals with Drug Use Problems: A Pre-Post–Follow-Up, Uncontrolled Pilot Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Sample Size
2.3. Intervention
2.4. Measures
2.4.1. Drug Abuse Screening Test
2.4.2. Timeline Follow-Back Interview
2.4.3. Contemplation Ladder
2.4.4. Multidimensional Scales of Perceived Social Support
2.4.5. Treatment Integrity of Collective Motivational Interviewing
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participant Profiles
3.2. Baseline Measures
3.3. Outcome Measures
3.4. Fidelity Control
4. Discussion
4.1. Limitations
4.2. Implications
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Miller, W.R.; Rollnick, S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change, 3rd ed.; Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Miller, W.R. Motivational Interviewing with Problem Drinkers. Behav. Cogn. Psychother. 1983, 11, 147–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Self, K.J.; Borsari, B.; Ladd, B.O.; Nicolas, G.; Gibson, C.J.; Jackson, K.; Manuel, J.K. Cultural Adaptations of Motivational Interviewing: A Systematic Review. Psychol. Serv. 2022. online ahead of print. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miller, W.; Moyers, T. Motivational Interviewing for Addiction; Psychwire.com, Ed.; Psychwire.com: Sydney, Australia, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Calomarde-Gómez, C.; Jiménez-Fernández, B.; Balcells-Oliveró, M.; Gual, A.; López-Pelayo, H. Motivational Interviewing for Cannabis Use Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Eur. Addict. Res. 2021, 27, 413–427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chan, D.N.; So, W.K. Effectiveness of Motivational Interviewing in Enhancing Cancer Screening Uptake Amongst Average-Risk Individuals: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 2021, 113, 103786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pederson, S.D.; Curley, E.J.; Collins, C.J. A Systematic Review of Motivational Interviewing to Address Substance Use with Justice-Involved Adults. Subst. Use Misuse 2021, 56, 639–649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sibley, M.H.; Graziano, P.A.; Coxe, S.; Bickman, L.; Martin, P. Effectiveness of Motivational Interviewing−Enhanced Behavior Therapy for Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Randomized Community-Based Trial. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2021, 60, 745–756. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Terry, J.D.; Weist, M.D.; Strait, G.G.; Miller, M. Motivational Interviewing to Promote the Effectiveness of Selective Prevention: An Integrated School-Based Approach. Prev. Sci. 2021, 22, 799–810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zolezzi, M.; Paravattil, B.; El-Gaili, T. Using Motivational Interviewing Techniques to Inform Decision-Making for COVID-19 Vaccination. Int. J. Clin. Pharm. 2021, 43, 1728–1734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wagner, C.C.; Ingersoll, K.S. Motivational Interviewing in Groups; Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Santa Ana, E.J.; LaRowe, S.D.; Gebregziabher, M.; Morgan-Lopez, A.A.; Lamb, K.; Beavis, K.A.; Bishu, K.; Martino, S. Randomized Controlled Trial of Group Motivational Interviewing for Veterans with Substance Use Disorders. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021, 223, 108716. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hernandez, L.; Rodriguez, A.M.; Spirito, A. Brief Family-Based Intervention for Substance Abusing Adolescents. Child Adolesc. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am. 2015, 24, 585–599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Serafini, K.; Stewart, D.G.; Wendt, D.C.; Donovan, D.M. Perceived Parental Support and Adolescent Motivation for Substance Use Change: A Preliminary Investigation. Addict. Res. Theory 2018, 26, 187–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lo, C.K.M.; Yu, L.; Cho, Y.W.; Chan, K.L. A Qualitative Study of Practitioners’ Views on Family Involvement in Treatment Process of Adolescent Internet Addiction. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tse, N.; Tse, S.; Wong, P.; Adams, P.J. Collective Motivational Interviewing for Substance Use Problems: Concept and Implications. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict. 2022, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Project MATCH Research Group Matching Alcoholism Treatments to Client Heterogeneity: Project Match Posttreatment Drinking Outcomes. J. Stud. Alcohol. 1997, 58, 7–29. [CrossRef]
- Anton, R.F.; O’Malley, S.S.; Ciraulo, D.A.; Cisler, R.A.; Couper, D.; Donovan, D.M.; Gastfriend, D.R.; Hosking, J.D.; Johnson, B.A.; LoCastro, J.S. Combined Pharmacotherapies and Behavioral Interventions for Alcohol Dependence: The Combine Study: A Randomized Controlled Trial. JAMA 2006, 295, 2003–2017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Orford, J.; Russell, I.; Alwyn, T.; Heather, N.; Hodgson, R.J.; John, B. Effectiveness of Treatment for Alcohol Problems: Findings of the Randomised Uk Alcohol Treatment Trial (UKATT). BMJ 2005, 331, 541. [Google Scholar]
- Steinglass, P. Family Systems and Motivational Interviewing: A Systemic-Motivational Model for Treatment of Alcohol and Other Drug Problems. Alcohol. Treat. Q. 2008, 26, 9–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lloyd-Hazlett, J.; Honderich, E.M.; Heyward, K.J. Fa-Mi-Ly Experiential Techniques to Integrate Motivational Interviewing and Family Counseling. Fam. J. 2016, 24, 31–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Huang, F.F.; Jiao, N.N.; Zhang, L.Y.; Lei, Y.; Zhang, J.P. Effects of a Family-Assisted Smoking Cessation Intervention Based on Motivational Interviewing among Low-Motivated Smokers in China. Patient Educ. Couns. 2015, 98, 984–990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Douaihy, A.; Kelly, T.M.; Gold, M.A. (Eds.) Motivational Interviewing in Family Settings. In Motivational Interviewing: A Guide for Medical Trainees; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2015; pp. 158–168. [Google Scholar]
- Skinner, H.A. Drug Use Questionnaire (DAST-20); Centre for Addiction and Mental Health: Toronto, ON, Canada, 1982. [Google Scholar]
- Leon, A.C.; Davis, L.L.; Kraemer, H.C. The Role and Interpretation of Pilot Studies in Clinical Research. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2011, 45, 626–629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Whitehead, A.L.; Julious, S.A.; Cooper, C.L.; Campbell, M.J. Estimating the Sample Size for a Pilot Randomised Trial to Minimise the Overall Trial Sample Size for the External Pilot and Main Trial for a Continuous Outcome Variable. Stat. Methods Med. Res. 2016, 25, 1057–1073. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hertzog, M.A. Considerations in Determining Sample Size for Pilot Studies. Res. Nurs. Health 2008, 31, 180–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Faul, F.; Erdfelder, E.; Lang, A.-G.; Buchner, A. G* Power 3: A Flexible Statistical Power Analysis Program for the Social, Behavioral, and Biomedical Sciences. Behav. Res. Methods 2007, 39, 175–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tse, S.; Tse, N. Collective Motivational Interviewing for Family Members of Persons with Substance Abuse Problems: Intervention Protocol; Unpublished Intervention Protocol; The University of Hong Kong: Hong Kong, China, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Sobell, L.C.; Sobell, M.B. Group Therapy for Substance Use Disorders: A Motivational Cognitive-Behavioral Approach; Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Fals-Stewart, W.; O’ Farrell, T.J.; Freitas, T.T.; McFarlin, S.K.; Rutigliano, P. The Timeline Followback Reports of Psychoactive Substance Use by Drug-Abusing Patients: Psychometric Properties. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2000, 68, 134–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hjorthøj, C.R.; Hjorthøj, A.R.; Nordentoft, M. Validity of Timeline Follow-Back for Self-Reported Use of Cannabis and Other Illicit Substances—Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Addict. Behav. 2012, 37, 225–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Slavet, J.D.; Stein, L.; Colby, S.M.; Barnett, N.P.; Monti, P.M.; Golembeske Jr, C.; Lebeau-Craven, R. The Marijuana Ladder: Measuring Motivation to Change Marijuana Use in Incarcerated Adolescents. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006, 83, 42–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Biener, L.; Abrams, D.B. The Contemplation Ladder: Validation of a Measure of Readiness to Consider Smoking Cessation. Health Psychol. 1991, 10, 360–365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Prochaska, J.O.; DiClemente, C.C.; Norcross, J.C. In Search of How People Change: Applications to Addictive Behaviors. Am. Psychol. 1992, 47, 1102–1114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rustin, T.A.; Tate, J.C. Measuring the Stages of Change in Cigarette Smokers. J. Subst. Abuse Treat. 1993, 10, 209–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hogue, A.; Dauber, S.; Morgenstern, J. Validation of a Contemplation Ladder in an Adult Substance Use Disorder Sample. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 2010, 24, 137–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zimet, G.D.; Dahlem, N.W.; Zimet, S.G.; Farley, G.K. The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. J. Pers. Assess. 1988, 52, 30–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chou, K.L. Assessing Chinese Adolescents’ Social Support: The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Pers. Individ. Differ. 2000, 28, 299–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tse, N.; Tse, S. Collective Motivational Interviewing Treatment Integrity Coding Manual—Version One (CMITI-V.1); Unpublished Coding Manual; The University of Hong Kong: Hong Kong, China, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Moyers, T.B.; Manuel, J.K.; Ernst, D. Motivational Interviewing Treatment Integrity Coding Manual 4.2.1. Available online: https://casaa.unm.edu/download/miti4_2.pdf (accessed on 26 September 2020).
- Moyers, T.B.; Rowell, L.; Manuel, J.K.; Ernst, D.; Houck, J.M. The Motivational Interviewing Treatment Integrity Code (MITI 4): Rationale, Preliminary Reliability and Validity. J. Subst. Abuse Treat. 2016, 65, 36–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- IBM Corp. IBM Spss Statistics for Windows, Version 24.0; IBM Corp: Armonk, NY, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Van Ginkel, J.R.; Linting, M.; Rippe, R.C.; van der Voort, A. Rebutting Existing Misconceptions About Multiple Imputation as a Method for Handling Missing Data. J. Pers. Assess. 2020, 102, 297–308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cohen, J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, 2nd ed.; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahwah, NJ, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Narcotics Division Central Registry of Drug Abuse—Drug Abuse Statistical Tables Customization. Available online: https://cs-crda.nd.gov.hk/en/enquiry.php (accessed on 11 September 2021).
- Census and Statistics Department. Median Household Monthly Income, 31 March 2019 ed.; HKSAR: Hong Kong, China, 2019.
- Comprehensive Social Security Assistance (CSSA) Scheme Home Page. Available online: https://www.swd.gov.hk/en/index/site_pubsvc/page_socsecu/sub_comprehens/ (accessed on 5 December 2022).
- Schmidt, L.K.; Andersen, K.; Nielsen, A.S.; Moyers, T.B. Lessons Learned from Measuring Fidelity with the Motivational Interviewing Treatment Integrity Code (MITI 4). J. Subst. Abuse Treat. 2019, 97, 59–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cox, J.R.; Martinez, R.G.; Southam-Gerow, M.A. Treatment Integrity in Psychotherapy Research and Implications for the Delivery of Quality Mental Health Services. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2019, 87, 221–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Haahr, M. Random.Org: True Random Number Service. Available online: https://www.random.org (accessed on 27 June 2020).
- Spinola, S.; Park, A.; Maisto, S.A.; Chung, T. Motivation Precedes Goal Setting in Prediction of Cannabis Treatment Outcomes in Adolescents. J. Child Adolesc. Subst. Abuse 2017, 26, 132–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cosden, M.; Basch, J.E.; Campos, E.; Greenwell, A.; Barazani, S.; Walker, S. Effects of Motivation and Problem Severity on Court-Based Drug Treatment. Crime Delinq. 2006, 52, 599–618. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Leon, G.; Melnick, G.; Tims, F.M. The Role of Motivation and Readiness in Treatment and Recovery. In Relapse and Recovery in Addictions; Tims, F.M., Leukefeld, C.G., Platt, J.J., Eds.; Yale University Press: London, UK, 2001; pp. 143–171. [Google Scholar]
- Carroll, K.M.; Ball, S.A.; Nich, C.; Martino, S.; Frankforter, T.L.; Farentinos, C.; Kunkel, L.E.; Mikulich-Gilbertson, S.K.; Morgenstern, J.; Obert, J.L.; et al. Motivational Interviewing to Improve Treatment Engagement and Outcome in Individuals Seeking Treatment for Substance Abuse: A Multisite Effectiveness Study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006, 81, 301–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Miller, W.R.; Yahne, C.E.; Tonigan, J.S. Motivational Interviewing in Drug Abuse Services: A Randomized Trial. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2003, 71, 754–763. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Serafini, K.; Shipley, L.; Stewart, D.G. Motivation and Substance Use Outcomes among Adolescents in a School-Based Intervention. Addict. Behav. 2016, 53, 74–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Polenick, C.A.; Cotton, B.P.; Bryson, W.C.; Birditt, K.S. Loneliness and Illicit Opioid Use among Methadone Maintenance Treatment Patients. Subst. Use Misuse 2019, 54, 2089–2098. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rathinam, B.; Ezhumalai, S. Perceived Social Support among Abstinent Individuals with Substance Use Disorder. Int. J. Psychosoc. Rehabil. 2022, 9, 81–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zaidi, U. Role of Social Support in Relapse Prevention for Drug Addicts. Int. J. Innov. Creat. Chang. 2020, 13, 915–924. [Google Scholar]
- Ezati, E.; Baghcheghi, N.; Araban, M.; Karimy, M.; Koohestani, H.R.; Zabeti, A.; Hosseinzadeh, H. Assessing Drug Use Relapse Rate and Its Associated Factors among Iranian Users. J. Subst. Use. 2022, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Havassy, B.E.; Hall, S.M.; Wasserman, D.A. Social Support and Relapse: Commonalities among Alcoholics, Opiate Users, and Cigarette Smokers. Addict. Behav. 1991, 16, 235–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pettersen, H.; Landheim, A.; Skeie, I.; Biong, S.; Brodahl, M.; Oute, J.; Davidson, L. How Social Relationships Influence Substance Use Disorder Recovery: A Collaborative Narrative Study. Subst. Abuse Res. Treat. 2019, 13, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Adejoh, S.O.; Temilola, O.M.; Adejuwon, F.F. Rehabilitation of Drug Abusers: The Roles of Perceptions, Relationships and Family Supports. Soc. Work Public Health 2018, 33, 289–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Latkin, C.A.; Edwards, C.; Davey-Rothwell, M.A.; Tobin, K.E. The Relationship between Social Desirability Bias and Self-Reports of Health, Substance Use, and Social Network Factors among Urban Substance Users in Baltimore, Maryland. Addict. Behav. 2017, 73, 133–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Janulis, P.; Birkett, M.; Phillips II, G.; Mustanski, B. Not Getting High with a Little Help from Your Friends: Social Versus Drug Network Correlates of Marijuana Use among Ymsm. Addict. Behav. 2019, 92, 180–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miller, K. Factors Affecting Juvenile Drug Use in Medellín, Colombia. Capstone Experience/Thesis Projects. Bachelor’s Thesis, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Darke, S. Self-Report among Injecting Drug Users: A Review. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998, 51, 253–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Del Boca, F.K.; Noll, J.A. Truth or Consequences: The Validity of Self-Report Data in Health Services Research on Addictions. Addiction 2000, 95, 347–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McNagny, S.E.; Parker, R.M. High Prevalence of Recent Cocaine Use and the Unreliability of Patient Self-Report in an Inner-City Walk-in Clinic. JAMA 1992, 267, 1106–1108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zajac, K.; Ginley, M.K.; Chang, R. Treatments of Internet Gaming Disorder: A Systematic Review of the Evidence. Expert Rev. Neurother. 2020, 20, 85–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bonnaire, C.; Liddle, H.A.; Har, A.; Nielsen, P.; Phan, O. Why and How to Include Parents in the Treatment of Adolescents Presenting Internet Gaming Disorder? J. Behav. Addict. 2019, 8, 201–212. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
Baseline Characteristics | ||
---|---|---|
n | % | |
Clients (IDUPs)—Individuals with Drug Use Problems | ||
Gender | ||
Male | 15 | 75 |
Female | 5 | 25 |
Age (groups in years) | ||
18–25 | 3 | 15 |
26–30 | 6 | 30 |
31–35 | 3 | 15 |
36–40 | 4 | 20 |
41–45 | 1 | 5 |
46–50 | 1 | 5 |
51–55 | 2 | 10 |
Education level | ||
Primary education (P.1 to P.6) | 1 | 5 |
Junior secondary education (S. 1 to 3) | 8 | 40 |
Senior secondary education (S. 4 to 7) | 9 | 45 |
Tertiary education (associate degree or above) | 2 | 10 |
Employment/Study status | ||
Full-time (at least 44 h per week) | 6 | 30 |
Part-time (less than 44 h per week) | 2 | 10 |
Unemployed | 10 | 50 |
Full-time study | 2 | 10 |
Marital status (% of total sample) | ||
Single, never married | 10 | 50 |
Married/cohabiting | 7 | 35 |
Divorced | 1 | 5 |
Widowed | 2 | 10 |
Living with family members | ||
Yes | 18 | 90 |
No | 2 | 10 |
Personal income (monthly, HKD) | ||
No income | 7 | 35 |
$4999 or below | 5 | 25 |
$5000–$9999 | 3 | 15 |
$10,000–$19,999 | 2 | 10 |
$20,000–$29,999 | 2 | 10 |
$30,000–$39,999 | 1 | 5 |
Comprehensive Social Security Assistance (CSSA) | ||
Yes | 7 | 35 |
No | 13 | 65 |
Had received psychiatric treatment | ||
Yes | 14 | 70 |
No | 6 | 30 |
Currently receiving psychiatric treatment | ||
Yes | 9 | 45 |
No | 11 | 55 |
Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST) | ||
Low | 3 | 15 |
Intermediate (likely meeting DSM criteria) | 3 | 15 |
Substantial | 14 | 70 |
History of drug use (years) | ||
Below 5 | 3 | 15 |
5 to 10 | 6 | 30 |
11 to 20 | 3 | 15 |
21 to 30 | 4 | 20 |
31 or above | 4 | 20 |
Main types of drug use | ||
Heroin | 3 | 15 |
Cocaine | 2 | 10 |
Amphetamine | 8 | 40 |
Cough medicine | 5 | 25 |
Midazolam | 2 | 10 |
Self-reported that they had been diagnosed with psychiatric disorders by a psychiatrist | ||
Depression | 6 | 30 |
Bipolar | 1 | 5 |
Drug-induced psychosis | 1 | 5 |
Unsure (forgotten by respondents) | 6 | 30 |
No | 6 | 30 |
Concerned Significant Others (CSOs) of IDUPs | ||
Gender | ||
Male | 3 | 15 |
Female | 17 | 85 |
Relationship with client | ||
Mother | 6 | 30 |
Father | 1 | 5 |
Older sister | 4 | 20 |
Wife | 4 | 20 |
Husband | 1 | 5 |
Daughter | 2 | 10 |
Close friend (Male) | 2 | 10 |
Drug Use Status at T3 | N | % |
---|---|---|
Stayed in community after CMI | ||
Abstinence-C (A) | 8 | 40 |
Reduced in drug use frequency | 6 | 30 |
Increased in drug use frequency | 4 | 20 |
Entered voluntary residential drug rehabilitation programmes Abstinence-R (B) | 2 | 10 |
Total abstinence in the present study (A+B) | 10 | 50 |
Quality of CMI in the Present Study | The Thresholds of CMITI | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Session 1 | Session 2 | Session 3 | Fair | Good | |
Relational | 4.8 | 4.3 | 4.5 | 3.5 | 4.0 |
Technical | 4.5 | 4.3 | 4.5 | 3.0 | 4.0 |
%CR | 61.3% | 57.1% | 64.3% | 40% | 50% |
R: Q | 0.9:1 | 1.9:1 | 1.4:1 | 1:1 | 2:1 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Tse, N.; Tse, S.; Wong, P.W.C. Collective Motivational Interviewing for Individuals with Drug Use Problems: A Pre-Post–Follow-Up, Uncontrolled Pilot Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 16344. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192316344
Tse N, Tse S, Wong PWC. Collective Motivational Interviewing for Individuals with Drug Use Problems: A Pre-Post–Follow-Up, Uncontrolled Pilot Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(23):16344. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192316344
Chicago/Turabian StyleTse, Nick, Samson Tse, and Paul W.C. Wong. 2022. "Collective Motivational Interviewing for Individuals with Drug Use Problems: A Pre-Post–Follow-Up, Uncontrolled Pilot Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 23: 16344. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192316344